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WEST  FRONT  OF  REIMS  CATHEDRAL,  1208-1380 


HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 


ANCIENT  AND  MEDIEVAL 


BY 

A.  D.  F.  HAMLIN,  A.M.,  L.H.D.,  A.I. A. 

PROFESSOR  OF  THE  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE  IN 
COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 


WITH  400  ILLUSTRATIONS 


NEW  YORK 
THE  CENTURY  CO. 


Copyright,  1916.  by 
THE  CENTURY  Co. 


Published,  October,  1916 


PRINTED  IN  U.   S.  A. 


Architecture  ft 
Urban  Planning 
Library 


/US' 


TO 
MY  STUDENTS 

IN  GRATEFUL  RECOGNITION 
OF  THEIR  INTEREST  AND  DE- 
VOTION WHICH  FOR  THIRTY- 
THREE  YEARS  PAST  HAVE 
MADE  TEACHING  FOR  ME 
A  CONTINUOUS  PLEASURE 


PREFACE 

Books  on  ornament  are  so  many  that  to  add  to  their 
number  may  seem  at  first  sight  a  wholly  superfluous 
task.  Yet  in  all  the  long  lists  of  the  bibliographies  of 
the  subject  there  appears  a  singular  lack  of  systematic 
treatises  on  the  history  of  the  various  styles  which  have 
marked  the  growth  and  progress  of  decorative  art. 
Elaborate  compendiums  of  ornament  grouped  by  styles 
or  by  other  categories  are  not  wanting;  the  splendid 
"Grammar  of  Ornament"  of  Owen  Jones,  and  "Orna- 
ment polychrome"  of  Racinet;  the  "Ornamentenschatz" 
of  Dolmetsch,  the  "Handbook  of  Ornament"  of  Franz 
Sales  Meyer,  Speltz's  "Styles  of  Ornament,"  and  the 
excellent  plates  of  "Historic  Ornament"  published  by 
the  Prang  Educational  Company,  are  examples  of  such 
collections  of  ornament,  all  meritorious  in  various  ways, 
and  all  highly  serviceable  to  students  and  decorators. 
But  in  the  whole  catalogue  of  the  Avery  Library  of  Co- 
lumbia University — the  richest  collection  in  this  coun- 
try of  works  on  architecture  and  the  allied  arts — I  have 
found  but  two  titles  of  systematic  histories  of  ornament, 
one  in  French  and  one  in  German ;  neither  available  for 
those  who  read  only  English,  and  neither  of  them,  even 
for  those  who  can  read  French  or  German,  exactly  suited 
to  the  needs  of  the  average  English  or  American  student 
of  architecture  or  decoration. 

I  have  for  years  felt  the  need  of  some  such  text-book 

vii 


PREFACE 

for  students  in  my  own  courses  in  Columbia  University 
in  the  History  of  Ornament.  Of  the  many  works  in  Eng- 
lish, French  or  German,  mentioned  above,  which  to  any 
extent  recognize  the  historical  element  in  the  styles  of 
ornament,  some  are  too  expensive  for  student  use ;  some 
are  too  brief  or  too  superficial  in  their  text,  some  inade- 
quate in  their  illustrations.  In  response  to  many  ap- 
peals from  teachers  in  other  institutions,  from  their  stu- 
dents and  from  my  own,  and  with  a  view  of  meeting  my 
own  needs  in  teaching,  I  have  ventured  on  the  task  of 
attempting  such  a  systematic  history  of  ornament.  This 
volume  represents  the  first  half  of  the  work  which  I  hope 
to  complete  by  a  second  volume,  if  this  one  shall  meet 
with  the  favor  of  the  public.  It  is,  however,  complete 
in  itself,  as  it  covers  the  ancient  and  medieval  styles, 
leaving  the  styles  of  the  Renaissance,  of  modern  times 
and  of  the  Orient,  for  the  second  volume. 

The  predominance  of  illustrations  from  architecture 
is  due  not  merely  to  the  fact  that  these  chapters  are 
based  on  lectures  to  architects ;  but  also  to  the  fact  that 
the  styles  are  most  clearly  exhibited  in  the  progress  of 
architecture  as  the  "mistress  art."  It  is  hoped  that  the 
"Books  Recommended"  will  enable  the  reader  to  supply 
for  himself  the  illustrations  from  the  other  arts  which 
he  finds  lacking  in  this  work. 

With  regard  to  the  illustrations,  I  may  say  that  the 
majority  are  either  from  my  own  drawings  or  reproduced 
directly  from  photographs.  As  they  are  presented 
purely  to  illustrate  the  subject  and  not  as  models  of 
draftsmanship,  I  trust  they  will  not  be  too  severely 
criticised  on  the  technical  side.  The  extreme  small- 

yiii 


PREFACE 

ness  of  many  of  them  has  been  made  necessary  by  the 
desire  to  keep  the  volume  within  modest  limits  of  size 
and  price.  For  the  same  reason  the  number  of  plates 
in  color  had  to  be  restricted.  Larger  plates,  larger 
cuts  and  more  of  them,  would  have  made  the  book  bulky 
and  costly  beyond  measure,  at  least  for  student  use. 

I  beg  herewith  to  make  my  acknowledgments  to  all 
who  have  helped  me  in  preparing  these  illustrations: 
especially  to  a  number  of  my  students,  whose  names 
will  be  found  in  the  List  of  Illustrations;  to  Messrs. 
Chapman  and  Hall  for  the  use  of  several  illustrations 
from  Ward's  "Historic  Ornament";  to  Messrs.  Long- 
mans, Green  &  Co.  for  the  use  of  a  cut  of  capitals  from 
my  "History  of  Architecture";  to  the  Prang  Educa- 
tional Company,  for  the  use  of  a  number  of  illustrations 
in  color  from  their  "Plates  of  Historic  Ornament";  to 
the  publishers  of  the  "Architectural  Record"  for  several 
cuts  from  various  issues;  to  the  "American  Architect" 
for  permission  to  use  a  number  of  my  own  illustrations 
in  various  issues  between  1898  and  1901 ;  to  the  Metro- 
politan Museum  of  Art,  New  York,  for  permission  to 
reproduce  a  number  of  the  Museum's  official  photo- 
graphs of  casts  and  models  in  the  Willard  Architectural 
Collection ;  to  the  house  of  Bruno  Hessling  for  permis- 
sion to  reproduce  a  number  of  illustrations  from  Meyer's 
Handbook  of  Ornament,  and  my  Fig.  332  from  Speltz, 
Styles  of  Ornament;  to  my  daughter  Genevieve  for 
two  drawings ;  and  to  the  officers  of  the  Avery  Library 
for  much  valuable  assistance  cheerfully  rendered.  I 
have  tried  to  give  credit,  in  my  List  of  Illustrations,  for 
all  such  assistance,  and  to  indicate  the  sources  of  the  il- 

ix 


PREFACE 

lustrations  as  far  as  possible.  Some  of  them,  however, 
were  drawn  so  long  ago,  or  have  come  into  my  posses- 
sion from  sources  so  long  forgotten,  that  I  have  not  been 
able  in  every  case  to  do  this.  I  trust  I  have  not  tres- 
passed on  any  one's  proprietary  rights  in  any  case. 
Many  of  my  own  drawings  are  re-interpretations  of  sub- 
jects appearing  in  other  works;  in  such  cases  I  have, 
where  possible,  indicated  the  source  by  the  words  "after" 
so-and-so. 

There  are  two  classes  of  figures  besides  the  Plates  I 
to  XXII:  those  in  the  text,  and  those  gathered  into 
pages  distributed  through  the  text.  To  aid  the  reader 
in  finding  the  references  to  illustrations,  I  have  in  the 
text  referred  to  all  of  the  first  class, — those  in  the  text— 
by  the  abbreviation  "Fig."  or  "Figs.";  while  the  word 
"Figure"  refers  always  to  illustrations  grouped  in 
pages;  the  page-reference  is  sometimes  added. 

I  desire  to  express  my  appreciation  of  the  cordial  and 
generous  cooperation  of  The  Century  Co.  in  the  prepa- 
ration of  this  work. 

I  commend  this  fruit  of  my  labors  to  the  kind  con- 
sideration of  teachers  and  students  of  architecture  and 
decorative  design,  and  to  designers  generally,  with  the 
hope  that  it  will  be  found  to  meet  their  needs  and  prove 
useful  both  in  the  class-room  and  the  studio. 

A.  D.  F.  HAMLIN. 
Christmas  Cove,  Maine, 
August  14,  1916 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

3 


CHAPTER 

I     INTRODUCTORY  

II     PRIMITIVE  AND  SAVAGE  ORNAMENT      ....  20 

III     EGYPTIAN  ORNAMENT 32 

IV     CHALDEA  AND  ASSYRIA 55 

V     WEST  ASIATIC  ORNAMENT:  PHRYGIA,  LYDIA  AND 

PERSIA 65 

VI     PRE-HELLENIC  ORNAMENT:  ^EGEAN  AND  ASIATIC  73 

VII     GREEK  ORNAMENT,  I 88 

VIII     GREEK  ORNAMENT,  II 110 

IX     ETRUSCAN  AND  ROMAN  ORNAMENT,  I  ....  127 

X     ROMAN  ORNAMENT,  II 151 

XI     POMPEIIAN  ORNAMENT 170 

XII     EARLY  CHRISTIAN  OR  BASILICAN  ORNAMENT  .      .  187 

XIII  BYZANTINE  ORNAMENT 206 

XIV  ROMANESQUE  ORNAMENT:  I,  ITALIAN  AND  FRENCH  234 
XV     ROMANESQUE     ORNAMENT:    II.  ANGLO-NORMAN, 

GERMAN,  SPANISH  AND  SCANDINAVIAN  .      .      .  266 

XVI     GOTHIC  ORNAMENT:  STRUCTURAL 282 

XVII     GOTHIC  CARVING  AND  INDUSTRIAL  AND  ACCESSORY 

ARTS 303 

XVIII     PARTICULAR  SCHOOLS  OF  GOTHIC  ORNAMENT:  I. 

FRENCH  AND  ENGLISH 331 

XIX     PARTICULAR  SCHOOLS  OF  GOTHIC  ORNAMENT:  II. 

GERMAN,  SPANISH,  ITALIAN 366 

INDEX                                                                          .  393 


XI 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

In  the  following  List,  the  sources  of  the  illustrations  are  indicated  wher- 
ever possible.  A  number  of  them,  however,  have  been  made  from  drawings, 
tracings  or  engravings  in  the  Author's  possession  from  sources  he  has  been 
unable  to  identify.  All  illustrations  not  otherwise  designated  are  from 
original  drawings  by  the  Author.  Wherever  these  have  been  based  on  or 
suggested  by  illustrations  in  other  works,  the  fact  is  expressed  by  "A.  after" 
followed  by  the  source  from  which  the  drawing  has  been  derived  or  on  which 
it  is  based.  Many  cuts  are  from  drawings  by  students  of  Columbia  Uni- 
versity; these  are  indicated  by  the  initials  C.  U.,  followed  in  some  cases  by 
the  student's  name.  It  has  not  been  possible  to  trace  the  source  of  all  these 
drawings.  Other  abbreviations  and  references  are  as  follows :  A.  =  Author ; 
A.  C.  H.  =  Haddon,  Evolution  in  Art;  A.  M.  N.  H.  =  American  Museum 
of  Natural  History,  New  York;  Arch.  Rec.  =  Architectural  Record  (N.  Y.) ; 
A.  p.  T.  =:L'Art  pour  Tous;  Bond  =  Introduction  to  English  Church 
Architecture;  Colling  =  Gothic  Foliage,  Gothic  Ornaments;  F.  &  L.  = 
Furtwangler  und  Loschke,  Mykenische  Vasen;  F.  P.  =  Flinders-Petrie, 
Egyptian  Decorative  Art;  Hauser  =  Sty llehre  der  architektonischen  Formen 
des  Mittelalters;  Loftus  =  Researches  in  Chaldcea,  etc.;  Met.  Mus. t=> Metro- 
politan Museum  of  Art,  New  York;  Meyer  =  Meyer's  Ornamentale 
Formenlehre;  O.  J.  =  Owen  Jones,  Grammar  of  Ornament;  P.  d'A.  =  Prisse 
d' Avennes,  L'A  rt  Egyptien;  P.  &  C.  =  Perrot  et  Chipiez,  Histoire  de  Vart 
dans  I'antiquite;  Pho.  =  Photograph ;  Rickman  <=  A ttempt  to  Discriminate 
the  Styles,  etc.;  Ward  =  J.  Ward,  Historic  Ornament;  W.  H.  G.  =  W.  H. 
Goodyear,  Grammar  of  the  Lotus  and  articles  in  Architectural  Record. 

In  the  text  of  this  work,  references  to  cuts  intercalated  in  the  printed 
page  are  indicated  by  the  abbreviation  "Fig."  or  "Figs."  followed  by  the 
number.  The  word  "Figure"  in  full  followed  by  a  number  refers  to  illus- 
trations grouped  in  full  pages. 

PAGE 
West  Front  of  Reims  Cathedral Frontispiece 

1.  Grapevine   Border:   Typographic   Ornament,   from   an   Advertise- 

ment     9 

2.  An  "All-over"  Pattern 9 

3.  Linear    Ornaments:    a,    Fret;    b,    Wave    or    Current    Scroll;    c, 

Rosettes,     etc 9 

4.  Carved  Ornament,  Court  of  Doge's  Palace,  Venice 9 

5.  A   Powdered   or   Spangled   Pattern 9 

6.  Radiant  Ornament:  Carved  English  Gothic  Boss   (after  an  illus- 

tration in  Monumental  News) 9 

7.  Arabic  Star  Pattern 9 

8.  Diaper  Pattern,  English  Art-School  Work 9 

xiii 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

9.  Carved  foliage:  Porte  de  la  Vierge,  Notre  Dame,  Paris  ....  9 

10.  Orange  Border,  Semi-naturalistic  (A.  after  ill.  in  Journal  of  the 

Royal  Society,  1892) 9 

11.  Persistence  in  Ornament:  Tnlobe  Lotus  Motives,  Egyptian,  Greek, 

Roman,  Gothic 9 

12.  Convergence     and     Reversion:    The    Anthemion    Motive,    Greek, 

Roman,  Byzantine 9 

13.  Anthemion  Motives,  Greek  and  Byzantine 9 

14.  Accidental  Convergence:  a,  Egyptian   Flower;   b,   Byzantine  Cy- 

presses         9 

15.  Primitive  Dagger-handle,  Neolithic 23 

16.  New  Zealand  Tiki-tiki  Pattern:  a,  Carved;  b,  Stamped  ....  23 

17.  Maori  Spear-head:   Eyes   and  Tongue 23 

18.  Papuan  Manhood-belt:  Face  Motives  (A.  after  A.  C.  H.)    ...  23 

19.  Typical    Basketry    Forms 23 

20.  Peruvian   Grass-cloth:    Animal   Motive,   Toucan 23 

21.  Peruvian   Grass-cloth :   Animal   Motive,   Dog 23 

22.  Savage  Carvings:  a,  New  Zealand;  6,  Hawaiian 23 

23.  Brazilian  "Fish"  and  "Bat"  patterns  (A.  after  A.  C.  H.)   .     .     .  23 

25.  Scratched  Ornament  on  Maori  Flute  (A.  after  A.  C.  H.)    .     .      .  23 

26.  Brazilian  and  New  Zealand  Face  Motives 23 

27.  Tusayan  (Mexican)  Jar  (in  A.  M.  N.  H.) 23 

28.  Chiriqui  Alligator  Motives  (A.  after  A.  C.  H.) 23 

29.  Maori    Paddle:    Detail 24 

30.  Javanese  War-Drum  Head  (A.  after  A.  C.  H.) 26 

31.  a,  Pueblo  Jar;  b,  Spiral  from  Vase  in  PI.  II,  8;  c,  Prehistoric  Jar 

from  Budmer,  Bosnia 28 

32.  Mexican  Jar,  in  A.  M.  N.  H 29 

33.  Detail  from  Sarcophagus  of  Menkaura  (A.  after  P.  &  C.)   .     .     .  33 

34.  Slate  Palette  in  Louvre  (A.  after  Capart) 36 

35.  Dish  of  Fruit,  from  a  Tomb  (A.  after  F.  P.) .38 

36.  The  Lotus:  a,  Natural;  6,  c,  Conventionalized 47 

37.  Lotus  Forms:  a,  Full  Flower;  b-c,  Trilobe  Forms 42 

38.  Lotus  Border,  from  a  Tomb  (A.  after  O.  J.) 47 

39.  Lotus  Border,  from  a  Tomb  (A.  after  P.  d'A.) 47 

40.  Lotus  Rosette 47 

41.  Lotus  and  Spiral  Pattern  (A.  after  P.  d'A.) 47 

42.  The  Papyrus  Plant 43 

43.  Detail  of  Campanifonn  Capital 47 

44.  Lotus  or  Aquatic  Plant 47 

45.  Detail  of  Campaniform  Capital,  from  Luxor 41 

46.  Painted  Campaniform  Capital,  Karnak 43 

47.  Painted  Papyrus-head  Cap  (A.  after  P.  d'A.) 47 

48.  Spiral  All-over,  with  Rosettes  (A.  after  P.  d'A.) 47 

49.  Fret,  or  Key-Pattern,  with  Rosettes 47 

60.  Zigzags    and    Lozenges 47 

51.  Spiral  Waves  and  Rosettes 47 

xiv 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

52.  Intersecting    Circle    Pattern .47 

53.  Spirals  on  Scarab  Seal  (A.  after  F.  P.) ..     .     .44 

54.  Palmette  with  Tabs  (A.  after  W.  H.  G.) 47 

55.  Palmettes;  a,  Jewel,  4th  Dynasty;  b,  Painted  (A.  after  W.  H.  G.)  47 

56.  Palmette-and-bead    Necklace 47 

57.  Vulture,  painted  on  Ceiling  (A.  after  P.  d'A.) 47 

58.  Winged  Globe,  Cornice  (A.  after  P.  &  C.) 47 

59.  Uraeus  Cresting,  Ptolemaic  (from  an  Engraving) 47 

60.  Feather  Ornament  (A.  after  F.  P.) 60 

61.  Decoration  by  Lines,  Imbrications  and  Chevron 45 

62.  Typical  Egyptian  Cornice 47 

63.  Three  Columns;  a,  b,  c,  Upper  Part  and  Plans;  d,  Lower  Part  of 

Clustered  Shaft  (A.  after  Meyer) 50 

64.  Three  Egyptian  Capitals   (A.  after  Meyer) 50 

65.  Osirid  Pier   (A.  after  P.  &  C.) 51 

68.  Mosaic  Wall-pattern  (A.  after  Loftus) 57 

69.  Assyrian  Motives:  a,  Lotus;  b,  Palmette;  c,  Rosette  (after  Meyer); 

d,  Imbrications   (after  O.  J.) ;  e,  winged  disk  or  globe   (after 
Layard) ;  /,  Guilloche  (after  P.  &  C.) ;  h,  Pomegranate;  i,  Pome- 

granate-palmette  scratched  on  Ivory  (A.  after  A.  C.  H.)  ...  58 

70.  a,  b,  Pine-cone  Lotus  Border,  carved:  c,  Part  of  Sacred  tree  (after 

Ward) 60 

71.  Assyrian  Volutes 61 

72.  a,  Ivory  Palmette  Terminal  Ornament;  b,  Palm-tree,  from  Relief 

at  Koyunjik 62 

73.  Assyrian  Winged  Monster  or  Griffin  (A.  after  P.  &  C.)  .     .     .     .  62 

74.  Details  from  Phrygian  Tomb-f acades :  a,  of  "Midas";  b,  Doghanlou 

(A.   after   P.   &   C.) 65 

75.  Capital   from    Neandreia:   Proto-Ionic 66 

76.  Doorway  from  Persepolis 67 

77.  Persian  Details:  a,  Architrave  and  Cornice  from  a  Tomb;  b.  Palm 

Ornament;  c,  Stairway  Parapet;  d,  Column-Base,  all  from  Per- 
sepolis (A.  after  P.  &  C.  and  Wrard) 69 

78.  Volutes  from  Persepolitan  Capital 70 

79.  Ahuri-mazda,   from  a   Relief 71 

80.  Cretan    Column 75 

81.  Cretan    Frieze    Ornament 76 

82.  Cretan  Painted  Ornament:  Rosettes  and  Vitruvian  Scroll  (A.  after 

P.  &  C.) 76 

83.  Fret  or  Key  Pattern,  Knossos 76 

84.  Late  Minoan  Vase  (A.  after  Engraving) 75 

85.  Marine  Plants,  from  a  Sarcophagus  found  at  Gortyna   (A.  after 

P.  &  C.) 76 

86.  Ornaments  from  Cretan  Terra-cotta  Ossuary  (A.  after  P.  &  C.)  76 

87.  Upper  part  of  Column,  Tholos  of  Atreus 76 

88.  Mycenaean  Bowl;  Basketry  Motives 76 

89.  Mycenaean    Frieze    Ornament 76 

XV 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

90.  Mycenaean  Nature  Forms:  Plants,  Squid,  Dolphin 76 

91.  Mycenaean  Pottery  Spirals 78 

92.  Cuttle-Fish,  from  a  Vase 76 

93.  Scale  Ornament  from  Tiryns 76 

94.  Mycenaean  Motives:  a,  b,  Heart  Forms;  c,  Branched  Spiral   (A. 

after  F.  &  L.) 76 

95.  a,  Current  Scroll,  Tiryns;  b,  Vase  Ornament,  Mycenae  ....  78 

96.  Plant  Forms,  Mycenae  Pottery  (A.  after  F.  &  L.) 79 

97.  Squids,    Mycenae    Pottery 79 

98.  A   Mycenae    Button 80 

99.  Detail  fronrWall  Band,  Tiryns  (A.  after  P.  &C.) 80 

100.  a,  Gold  Inlay,  Spirals  on  Sword;  b,  from  Bronze  Stele:  both  from 

Mycenae 82 

101.  a,  Mycenaean  Vase;  b,  from  Bronze  Tripod,  Athens 81 

102.  Mycenaean  Ornament  in  Alabaster  (A.  after  P.  &  C.)    ....  81 

103.  Rosettes :  a,  Tiryns;  b,  Mycenae  (A.  after  P.  &  C.) 81 

104.  a,  Mycenaean  Plant;  b,  Egyptian  Palmette 81 

105.  Ivy  Band,  Mycenaean  Pottery 81 

106.  From  a  Phenician  Silver  Platter 81 

107.  From  a  Mycenaean  Silver  Cup 81 

108.  Phenician  Silver:  Palmettes  and  Griffins 81 

109.  a,  c,  Phenician  Palmettes;  b,  Greek  Vase  Ornament 81 

110.  Cypriote  Oenochoe  (A.  after  W.  H.  G.,  in  Arch.  Rec.)   ....  81 

111.  Detail  from  Cypriote  Sarcophagus  from  Amathus,  in  Met.  Mus.   .  81 

112.  Cypriote  Lotuses  (W.  H.  G.  in  Arch.  Rec.) 81 

113.  Cypriote  Bronze  Stele  (A.  after  W.  H.  G.) 81 

114.  Cypriote  Stone  Stele  in  Met.  Mus 82 

115.  Cypriote  Lotus,  checkered  (W.  H.  G.  in  Arch.  Rec.) 83 

116.  Cypriote  Ornaments 83 

117.  Phenician  Vase  from  Jerusalem  (A.  after  P.  &  C.) 84 

118.  Detail,  Cypriote  Vase  from  Ormidia,  in  Met.  Mus.   (A.  after  P. 

&  C.) 84 

119.  Cypriote  Vase  Ornaments;  Nature  Forms,    o,  Goose  and  Lotus; 

6,  Astarte  (?)  and  Plants;  c,  Fantastic  Flower  (A.  after  P.  &  C.)  85 

120.  Lotus-and-Bud  Borders  from  Rhodian  and  Melian  Vases  ...  86 

121.  Greek  Vase,  Fine  Period,  in  Royal  Museum,  Naples  (Pho.)    .      .  89 
121  A.  Carved  Anthemion  Band,  from  Erechtheion,  Athens  (Pho.)    .     .  89 

122.  Greek  Palmette  Ornament;  Early  Vth  Century  B.C.  (A.  after  Lau.)  94 

123.  Anthemion  Band,  Typical  Linking  by  Spirals,  compared  with  typi- 

cal Assyrian  Linking 94 

124.  Typical  Geometric  Ornament  Elements 96 

125.  Typical   Nature   Form-Elements 96 

126.  Typical  Architectural   Forms 97 

127.  Carved  Rinceau,  Temple  of  Apollo  at  Didyme,  near  Miletus:  from 

Base  of  Column   (A.  from  Pho.) 94 

128.  Types  of  Greek  Vases:  a,  Aryballos;  b,  Lekythos;  c,  Rhyton;  d, 

Alabastron;  i,  I,  Hydria;  /.  Krater;  e,  g,  Amphora;  h,  Ointment 

Box;  k,  Kylix  (A.  after  Meyer) 101 

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LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

129.  Geometric  or  Dipylon  Vase,  from  Museum  of  Sevres  (A.  after  J.)  103 

130.  Rhodian  Vase,  Sevres  Museum  (A.  after  Jacquemart)    ....  103 

131.  Single  and  Double   Frets 94 

132.  Guilloche,  from  Painted  Molding 94 

132A.  Wave  or  Current  Scroll    .     .     .     .     , 104 

133.  Anthemion  with  Branding  Scrolls  ..     ,. 105 

134.  Types    of    Anthemion    Patterns 105 

135.  Types    of    Anthemions 94 

136.  Types  of  the  Lotiform  Motive 94 

137.  Vine  Pattern,  from  Vase 94 

138.  Elementary  Rinceau  on  Pottery i     ...  94 

139.  Lotus-and-bud  Origin  of  Egg-and-dart  Motive 108 

140.  Apulian  Vase;  Sevres  Museum  (A.  after  Jacquemart)    ....  109 

141.  Detail  from  Handle  of  Apulian  Vase 94 

142.  Painted   Molding   Ornaments 113 

143.  Painted  Ceiling  Panel  from  Parthenon,  (G.  K.  H.  after  Meyer)  .     .111 

144.  Carved   Egg-and-dart   and   Water-leaf 113 

145.  Details  from  North  Door  of  Erechtheion:  a,  Cantilever  or  Bracket; 

b,    Rosette 113 

146.  Corinthian  Capital,  Temple  of  Zeus,  Athens 113 

147.  Triple  Guilloche  on  Torus  of  an  Ionic  Base 116 

148.  Foliage  Capital,  from  Aegae 118 

149.  Branching  Scroll  and  Covering-leaf;  from  Erechtheion  ....  113 

150.  Painted    Terra-cotta   Antefix;    Athens 119 

151.  Acanthus   (or  Aloes?)  on  Steles 113 

152.  Acanthus   and   Burdock   Leaves 120 

153.  Acanthus:     a,  A.  Mollis;  b,  A.   Spinosus 113 

154.  Corinthian   Capital  from   Bassae    (Phigalaea) 121 

155.  Corinthian  Capital  from  "Tower  of  the  Winds,"  Athens  ....  121 

156.  Detail  of  Etruscan  Terra-cotta  Cresting  (A.  after  A.  p.  T.)   .     .  128 

157.  Details  from  Terra-cottas  in  Campana  Collection,  Louvre  (A.  after 

A.  p.  T.) 128 

158.  159.  Borders  or  Edgings  of  "Campana"  Terra-cottas  (A.  after  A. 

p.  T.) 129 

160.  Part  of  an  Etruscan  Terra-cotta  Pilaster;  Lilies  (A.  after  Rachel)  130 

161.  Etruscan  Pilaster  Cap.   (A.  after  Durm) 131 

162.  Bronze  Mirror  and  Jewels  (A.  after  Meyer  and  Ward)  ....  131 

163.  Roman  Decorative  System:    Hall  of  Baths  of  Caracalla   (Denk- 

maler    der    Kunst?) 134 

164.  Roman  Arch  and  Columns,  from  Arch  of  Titus 136 

165.  Niche  Cap  from  Baalbek  (A.  after  Durm) 137 

166.  Scroll  from  Temple  of  Vespasian,  in  Villa  Aldobrandini  ....  138 

167.  Typical   Roman   Moldings 139 

168.  Ionic  Capital  with  Corner  Volutes 140 

169.  Corinthian  Capital,  Temple  of  Mars  Ultor  (A.  after  d'Espouy)   .  141 

170.  Composite  Capital  in  Lateran  Museum 143 

171.  Two   Pilaster  Caps    (Meyer) 145 

172.  A    Modillion 142 

xvii 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

173.  Restoration  of  Cornice  of  Basilica  ^Emilia   (from  photograph  of 

original  drawing  by  R.  H.  Smythe) 143 

174.  Order  of  Temple  of  Castor  and  Pollux;  Photograph  of  Cast  in 

Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York 150 

175.  Restoration   of   Arch   of    Constantine;    Photograph   of   Model    in 

Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York 150 

176.  Two  Standing  Acanthus  Leaves 151 

177.  Varieties  of  Acanthus  Leaf  Detail   (A.  after  Durm)    ....  152 

178.  Pilaster  Scroll  Nests:    a,  Late  Roman,  from  an  old  French  Litho- 

graph;  b,   Fragment  in   Villa  Medici,   from   Cast   in   Columbia 
University 145 

179.  Roman  Rinceau  and  Scroll  Nest,  from  Forum  of  Trajan,  in  Lnteran 

Museum  (A.  from  Pho.) 154 

180.  Candelabrum   in   Vatican    (Meyer) 145 

181.  Two  Rosette  Types 145 

183.  Rinceau  from  Temple  of  Sun  (A.  after  a  French  Drawing)  .     .      .  154 

183.  Three    Roman    Anthemion    Ornaments 156 

184.  Ceiling    Panels    from    Arch   of    Titus,    Baths    of   Caracalla,    and 
Basilica  of  Constantine 157 

185.  Dolphins,  from  an  Etruscan  Terra-cotta  (Meyer  after  Kachel)  .     .  145 

186.  Bucranes  and  Festoon  or  Swag  (Meyer) 145 

187.  Stucco  Relief  from  Tomb  in  Via  Latina  (Pho.) 159 

188.  Stucco  Relief  from  House  exhumed  in  1879,  now  in  Museo  delle 

Terme,  Rome   (Pho.) 159 

189.  Mosaic  Floor  Pattern,  from  Pompeii 145 

190.  Detail  of  Floor  Mosaic  from  Villa  Italica  near  Seville   (A.  after 

Pfeifer) 163 

191.  Roman  Marble  Vase  in  Naples  Museum  (Pho.) 165 

192.  Roman  Marble  Vase,  from  Cast  in  Metropolitan  Museum,  New 

York 165 

193.  Details  from  a  Bronze  Vase  and  Jewelry,  perhaps  Etruscan   .     .  163 

194.  Under  Side  of  a  Vase  in  the  "Hildesheim  Find,"  now  in  Berlin 

("Workshop") 164 

195.  Roman  Grotesque;   Detail  of  Relief   from    Forum   of  Trajan   in 

Lateran  Museum  (A.  from  Pho.) 168 

196.  Pompeiian  Ionic  Capital  (A.  after  Watt) 171 

197.  Pompeiian  Moldings  (A.  after  Mazois  and  Zahn) 112 

198.  Canred  Rinceau,  from  a  Tomb  in  Pompeii  (A.  from  Pho.)  .     .     .  173 

199.  Painted  Wall,  Third  Period  (Pho.) 176 

200.  Painted  Wall,  Fourth  Period  (Pho.) 176 

201.  Stucco    Relief   from    Stabian    Baths    (Pho.) 180 

202.  Pompeiian  Floor  Mosaics  (A.  after  Zahn) 181 

203.  Mosaic  Fountain  in  Casa  Grande,  Pompeii   (Pho.) 185 

204.  Marble  Table  Supports  from  House  of  Cornelius  Rufus,  Pompeii 

(Pho.) 185 

205.  Candelabrum  and  Table  Leg  (A.  p.  T.  and  Meyer  after  Botticher)  18:2 

206.  End  of  a  Sarcophagus  in  S.  Apollinare  in  Classe,  Ravenna  (C.  U.)  188 

207.  Interior  (Detail)  of  S.  Lorenzo  Fuori,  Rome  (Pho.)  .     .  •   .     .     .189 

xviii 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

208.  Floor  Mosaic  in  S.  M.  in  Trastevere  (from  a  French  Drawing)  .     .  194 

209.  Byzantine  Veined  Wainscot  (Journal  of  R.  I.  B.  A.,  1887)  .     .     .  196 

210.  Apse-head  Mosaic  in  S.  Clemente,  Rome  (Pho.) 189 

211.  Ornaments  in  Mosaic:    a,  from  St.  John  Lateran;  b,  Sta.  Maria  in    . 

Trastevere 197 

212.  Pulpit  Detail  from  Sta.  Maria  in  Ara  Coeli,  Rome  (Ward)    .      .199 

213.  Pulpit  Details  from  S.  Lorenzo  Fuori,  Rome  (Racinet)   ....  200 

214.  Detail  of  Cloister  Arcade,  St.  John  Lateran,  Rome  (Pho.)   .     .      .  203 

215.  Mosaic  on  Annular  Vault  of  Sta.  Costanza,  Rome  (Pho.)    .     .     .  203 

216.  Detail  of  Order,  Tomh  in  Palace  of  Diocletian,  Spalato  ....  207 

217.  Capital  with  Impost  Block,  San  Vitale,  Ravenna   (A.  from  Pho.)  208 

218.  Corinthianesque  Capital,  S.  Apollinare  Nuovo,  Ravenna  (A.  after 

Dehli) 209 

219.  Basket  Capital,  S.  Apollinare  Nuovo  (C.  U.) 210 

220.  Byzantine  Surface  Carving:  above,  from  Hagia  Sophia;  below,  from 

St.  Sergius  ("Kuchuk  Aya  Sofia") 211 

221.  Frieze  from  St.  John  Studios  (Emir  Akhor  Jami) 213 

222.  Byzantine  Acanthus  Molding,  from  an  Abacus 213 

223.  Anthemion    Ornament    from    Ravenna 213 

224.  Anthemion  Cornice  from  St.  Mark's,  Venice  (V.  E.  Macy)  .     .     .  214 

225.  Byzantine    Crosses    and    Anthemions:    above,    left,    from    Hagia 

Sophia;    right,   from   Civic   Museum,   Venice;   below,   from   Ra- 
venna     215 

226.  Acanthus  Leaves  and  Rinceaux,  from  Bishop's  Palace,  Ferentino  216 

227.  Vine  Border  from  Carved  Pluteal  in  San  Vitale,  Ravenna  .     .     .  219 

228.  Detail    from    Fig.    225 220 

229.  Peacock  Openwork  Panel,  Torcello  (Pho.) 217 

230.  Carved  Interlace  from  Spalato  (Pho.) 217 

230A.  Carved  Interlace  from  St.  Mark's,  Venice 220 

231.  Openwork  Panel  in  San  Vitale,  Ravenna  (Pho.) 217 

232.  Basket  Capital  from  St.  Mark's,  Venice  (Pho.) 217 

233.  Guilloche  Pattern  from  Hagia  Sophia   (Meyer) 222 

234.  End  of  a  Sarcophagus  in  S.  Apollinare  in  Classe,  Ravenna  (C.  U.)  222 

235.  Openwork  Window   Filling,   Sta.   Maria   Pomposa   (Pho.)    .      .      .  223 

236.  Mosaic,  Detail  from  Tomb  of  Galla  Placidia,  Ravenna  (Pho.)   .      .  223 

237.  Ivory  Throne  of  Bishop  Maximian  in  Cathedral  of  Ravenna  (Pho.)  223 

238.  The  Crown   of  Charlemagne    (Ward) 227 

239.  Fabric   in   Bamberg  Museum    (Bayet) 231 

240.  Syrian  Carving:  a,  from  Tourmanin;  b,  from  Bakouza   ....  231 

241.  Russian  (Georgian)  and  Armenian  Carving,  chiefly  from  a  Litho- 

graph by  Gagarin 230 

242.  Details  of  Marble  Inlays  on  Flank  of  Cathedral  of  Pisa  .      .      .     .240 

243.  Mosaic  Altar  Front  from   Ferentino    (Pho.) 236 

244.  Detail  from  Facade  of  San  Michele,  Lucca  (Pho.) 236 

245.  False  Window,  San  Stefano,  Bologna   (Pho.) 236 

246.  Lintel  of  a  Door,  San  Guisto,  Lucca  (Pho.) 242 

247.  Pavement  Detail  from  Baptistry  of  Florence  (Pho.) 242 

248.  Interior  of  Cathedral  of  Monreale  (Pho.) 247 

xix 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

249.  Capitals  from  Cloisters  of  Cathedral  of  Monreale  (Pho.)    .     .      .  247 

250.  Painted  Cufic  Inscription,  Palermo  (Gen.) 243 

251.  Detail  from  Bronze  Doors  of  Cathedral  of  Monreale  by  Bonnano  244 

252.  Arcaded  Cornice  from  S.  Martino  at  Palaia  (A.  from  Pho.)  .      .     .215 

253.  Wheel  Window  of  Church  at  Altamura   (Pho.) 253 

254.  Portal  of  Church  of  San  Zeno,  Verona  (Pho.) 253 

255.  Lombard    Carved    "Monsters":    above,    Capital    from    Church    at 

Aurona;  middle,  Symbols  of  St.  John  and  St.  Mark  on  Pulpit  in 
S.  Stefano,  Bologna;  below,  from  San  Ambrogio,  Milan  (A.  after 
Osten  and  de  Dartein) 246 

256.  One  Bay  and  Detail,  St.  Paul-trois-Chfiteaux  (A.  after  ReVoil)    .  250 

257.  Portal  of  Church  at  Carrenac   (Pho.) 259 

258.  Portal  St.  Jean  of  Cathedral  of  Rouen  (Pho.) 259 

259.  Capital  from  Cathedral  of  Angouleme  (Pho.) 259 

260.  Shafts  and  Figures,  West  Portal  of  Chartres  Cathedral  (Pho.)  .     .  259 

261.  Caps  and  Arch  Carvings,  St.  Pierre  d'Aulnay  (Pho.) 259 

262.  Double  Capital,  St.  Martin  des  Champs,  Paris  (Pho.)    ....  259 

263.  Romanesque  Iron  Knocker  (Pho.  of  Cast  in  Trocadero  Museum, 

Paris) 259 

264.  Baseo    with    Spurs 251 

265.  Late  French  Romanesque  Capital  (C.  U.,  Zetsche) 252 

266.  Carved  Rinceaux,  from  Mantes  (above)  and  Vaison  (below)   .     .  255 

267.  Acanthus  Leaves  from  Portal  of  Church  at  Avallon 256 

268.  Carved    Rinceau,   Avallon 256 

269.  Double  Rinceau,  Notre  Dame,  Paris  (A.  after  V.-le-D.)    .     .     .257 

270.  Romanesque   Ornaments    (Hauser) 261 

271.  Carved  Anthemion  Bands,  Church  of  St.  Aubin  at  Angers  (A.  after 

Cahier  et  Martin) 262 

272.  Grotesque,  from  Church  of  Notre  Dame,  Poitiers 263 

273.  Leaf  Motive  on  a  Tile,  St.  Omer 264 

274.  Corinthianesque  Capital,  Lincoln  Cathedral  (C.  U.) 267 

275.  Capital  from  St.  Peter's,  Northampton   (C.  U.) 267 

276.  Ornaments   from  Doorway  of  Iffley   Church,  Oxfordshire    (Rick- 

man)     268 

277.  Beak  or  Bird's-head  Molding 268 

278.  Interlaced   Arches    (Hauser) 269 

279.  Anthemion  Ornaments:  above,  from  St.  Savior's,  Southwark;  be- 

low, from   Hereford  Cathedral 270 

280.  Celtic  Initials:  Q,  from  an  Italian  Periodical;  O,  from  Lindisfarne 

Gospels  (O.  J.);  S,  from  Book  of  Kells  (A.  after  Sullivan)   .      .  270 

281.  Various    Interlaces    (Racinet,   etc.) 271 

282.  Cover  of  St.  Patrick's  Bell  (Ward) 271 

283.  One  Quarter  of  Cover  of  Molaise  Gospels  (Ward)  .     .     .     .     .     .272 

284.  Capital     from     Gernrode 273 

285.  Capital  from  Church  in  Wiirttemberg  (Gen.) 274 

286.  Doorway  from   Abbey  of  Heilsbronn    (Hauser) 275 

287.  Capital    from   Tarragona    (Gewerbehalle) 276 

288.  Capital   from  Tarragona    (Gewerbehalle) 276 

XX 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

289.  Norwegian  Carving:    a,  from  Church  at  Stedye;  b,  Unidentified 

(Gen.) 277 

290.  Norwegian  Chair  or  Choir  Stall  (Gewerbehalle) 277 

291.  Details  of  Candelabrum  in  Milan  Cathedral   (Ward)    .     .     .     .278 

292.  Chandelier  at  Hildesheim,  Detail  (A.  after  illustration  in  Archi- 

tectural   Record) 279 

293.  Romanesque  Gold  Cup  in  Museum  at  Bergen  (Workshop)  .     .     .  280 

294.  Three  French  Gothic  Capitals:    a,  from  Sainte  Chapelle,  Paris; 

b,  from  Notre  Dame,  Paris;  c,  from  North  Spire  of  Chartres 
Cathedral  (A.,  from  his  History  of  Architecture) 283 

295.  Decorative  Gable  over  Window,  Cologne  Cathedral  (Hauser)    .       284 

296.  A  Clustered  Pier,  Plan  and  Elevation   (C.  U.) 285 

297.  Romanesque  Capital  from  Bayeux  Cathedral,  and  Gothic  Capital 

from  St  Martin-des-Champs,  Paris 286 

298.  Gothic  Clustered  Bases,  from  Cathedral  of  Halberstadt  (Hauser) 

and   Rouen    (Raguenet) 287 

299.  Gothic  Pier-Arch  Moldings  from  Chartres,  Le  Mans,  and  St.  Mac- 

lou   (Rouen)    (A.  after  Simpson) 288 

300.  Enriched  Cornice  Molding,  Notre  Dame,  Paris  (Hauser)    .     .     .  289 

301.  Vaulting  Boss,  French  (Hauser) 289 

302.  Vaulting  of  Apsidal  Chapel,  Beauvais   (C.  U.) 290 

303.  Tierceron  Vaulting:  Chapter  House  of  Wells  Cathedral;   Exeter 

Nave;    Lincoln,    Lantern    (Pho.) 291 

304.  a,   Nave  of  Winchester  Cathedral;   b,  Fan   Vault,   Henry   VIFs 

Chapel,    Westminster     (Pho.) 292 

305  a,  Plate  Tracery,  Etton  Church 293 

305  b,  Bar  Tracery,  Meopham  Church;  c,  Perpendicular  Tracery,  North- 
fleet  Church  (A.  after  Brandon  and  others) 294 

306.  Cusps  in  Tracery 295 

307.  French  Rayonnaut  Balustrade  (C.  U.  after  V.-le-Duc)   .     .     .     .  296 

308.  French  Flamboyant  Balustrade,  Chateau  de  Josselyn  (C.  U.)   .     .  296 
309  a,  A  French  Early  Gothic  Crocket  (Hauser)  ;  b,  a  French  Flamboyant 

Crocket,  Evreux  Cath.  (C.  U.) 298 

310.  A  Gothic  Cresting  (Meyer,  after  Jacobsthal) 298 

311.  French  Flamboyant  Tabernacle  Canopy,  House  of  Jacques  Creur, 

Bourges  (Pho.) 299 

312.  Gargoyle  from  Notre  Dame,  Paris  (Pho.) 299 

313.  Capital,  St.  Martin-des-Champs,  Paris  (C.  U.,  C.  S.  Haight)   .     .  304 

314.  Corner  Leaf,  Notre  Dame,  Paris 305 

315.  French  Rayonnant  Capital   (C.  U.,  Zetsche) 305 

316.  Capitals,  Chapter  House  of  Southwell  Cathedral  (A.  from  Pho.)  306 

317.  Crocket,  Wells  Cathedral    (C.    U.) 306 

318.  Capital  from  Salisbury  Cathedral  (C.  U.,  J.  J.  Ide) 307 

319.  Tudor    Flower    (A.   after   Colling) 307 

320.  Arcade  of  Kings,  Amiens  Cathedral  (Hauser) 308 

321.  Tympanum,  Porte  de  la  Vierge,  Notre  Dame,  Paris  (Pho.)   .     .      .310 

322.  Reliefs  from  Portal  of  Notre  Dame  (Pho.)  from  onst  in  Trooadero 

Museum) 310 

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LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

323.  Tomb   of  St.   Stephen,   Abbot   of   Aubazine    (Pho.    from  cast   in 

Trocadero    Museum) 310 

324.  The  Last  Judgment,  Central  West  Doorway  of  Notre  Dame  (Pho.)  313 

325.  Rood  Screen,  Alby   Cathedral    (Pho.) 313 

326.  A  Miserere,  Beverley  Cathedral  (A.,  after  Bond) 312 

327.  XlVth  Century  Pew  End,  Winthorpe  Church  (C.  U.) 315 

328.  Detail  from  Wrought-Iron  Screen  in  St.  Sernin,  Toulouse  .     .      .  316 

329.  "Penture"  or  False  Hinge,  Central  Doors  of  Notre  Dame,  Paris 

(Pho.)        318 

330.  Iron  Screen  in  Bourges  Cathedral  (Pho.) 318 

331.  Two  French  Tile  Patterns  (A.  after  Meyer) 319 

332.  Manuscript  Ornaments,  XVth  Century  (Speltz) 320 

333.  A  French  Medallion  Window,  Chartres  (Arch.  Rec.) 323. 

334.  a  Part  of  Jesse  Window,  Chartres  Cathedral  (Arch.  Rec)   .     .     .322 

335.  b  Upper  Part,  Canopy  Window  from  Cologne  (A.  after  Hasak)   .  322 

335.  c  Upper  Part,  Canopy  Window  from  York  (A.  after  Glazier)   .     .  322 

336.  German  Grisaille  Windows,  from  Cologne  Cathedral  (above)  and 

Altenburg  (below) 324 

337.  Leading  of  a  Xlllth  Century  French  Window,  "The  Wedding  in 

Cana"    (Arch.    Rec.) 325 

338.  Upper  Part  of  a  French  Figure  Window  in  Chartres  Cathedral 

(Arch.     Record) 326 

339.  Part  of  Pulpit  in  Strassburg  Cathedral  (Pho.) 327 

340.  Church  of  St.  Maclou,  Rouen  (Pho.) 327. 

341.  Detail,  Carving  on  Front  of  Sens  Cathedral 332 

342.  Capital  from  Sainte  Chapelle,  Paris  (C.  U.,  Zetsche) 332 

343.  Detail  from  Cornice  of  Notre  Dame 335 

344.  Detail  from  Cornice  of  Church  at  Norrey,  near  Caen   (A.  after 

Nesfield)         ' 335 

345.  Oak  Leaf  Cornice  of  Sainte  Chapelle,  Paris  (Hauser)    ....  336 

346.  Late  Gothic  Molding,  Choir  Enclosure  of  Notre  Dame,  Paris  .     .  336 

347.  Rosette-Boss  from  Sainte  Chapelle 337 

348.  Vertical  Carved  Rinceau,  Notre  Dame,  Paris  (A.  after  V.-le-Duc)  337 

349.  Reliefs  from  Base  of  Portal  of  Notre  Dame,  Paris  (Gewerbehalle)  338 

350.  Early   Gothic   Grotesque,  Chartres   Cathedral    (Pho.)    ....  334 

351.  Part  of  Late  Gothic  Choir  Screen,  Amiens  Cathedral  (Pho.)    .      .  334 

352.  Two  Figures  from  Portal  of  Amiens  (Pho.) 339 

353.  XlVth    Century    Ivory   Triptych   in    Municipal   Library,    Amiens 

(Pho.) *      ...  339 

354.  Half  of  Western  Rose  Window,  Chartres  Cathedral  (Plate  Tracery)  341 

355.  Early  French  Tracery,  from  Reims  Cathedral 341 

356.  "Lanterne  des  Morts,"  Avioth,  Brittany   (Pho.) 343 

357.  Flamboyant  Detail,  Church  of  St.  Jacques,  Reims  (from  a  French 

Lithograph) 343 

358.  Rayonnant  Tracery  Carved  on  Wood,  from  a  Church  Door  (Pho.)  348 

359.  Flamboyant  Tracery,  Church  of  St.  Pierre  at  Louviers  (Pho.)  .     .  348 

360.  a,  One  Half  of  Spandrel  Carving,  Church  at  Stone,  Kent;  b.  Capital 

from  Lincoln  Cathedral;  r,  from  Ely  Cathedral   (from  Engrav- 
ings in  Monumental  News) 350 

xxii 


PAGE 

361.  Early    English   Capitals    (Casts   in   Metropolitan   Museum,    New 

York)     (Pho.) 351 

362.  Triforium  of  "Angel  Choir,"  Lincoln  Cathedral  (Pho.)   .     .     .     .  351 
3(j3.  Wreath  Capital,  Beverley  Cathedral  (?)  (from  engraving  in  Monu- 
mental   News) 353 

364.  a,  Finial,  Chapter  House  of  Wells  Cathedral;   b,  Crocket   from 

Beverley  Minster  (C.  U.,  Scott,  Bartberger) 353 

365.  Molding   Ornaments,   Early,   Decorated    and    Transitional    (Rick- 

man) 354 

366.  Carved  Spandrel,  Church  at  Stone,  Kent  (C.  U.) 354 

367.  Detail,  Diapered  Triforium,  Arcade  of  Westminster  Abbey  (Rick- 

man),  and  Detail  from  Diapering  of  Main  Arcade 355 

368.  Detail,  Wrooden  Screen  in  Manchester  Cathedral,  XVth  Century 

(C.    U.,    Wilson) 356 

369A.  Curvilinear  Period  Carved  Wooden  Panels  (A.  after  Colling)  .     .  357 

369.  Carved   "Poppy-head"   from  a  Pew-end  in  St.  Mary's,  Bury  St. 

Edmunds 357 

370.  Plate  Tracery,  Lillington  Church,  Northants  (A.  after  Bond)  .      .  358 

371.  Geometric  Tracery,  E.  Window,  Raunds  Ch.   (Rickman)    .     .     .  358 

372.  Curvilinear  Tracery;  a,  Ithlingboro,  Northants;  6,  Over,  Cambs; 

c,  Little  Addington,  Northants   (Rickman) 359 

373.  Perpendicular  Window,  Beauchamp  Chapel,  Warwick  (Rickman)  360 

374.  Hammer  Beam  "Open  Timber"  Roof,  Trunch  Church  (Rickman)  362 
374A.  Open  Timber  Roof,  Lavenham  Church  (Bury) 363 

375.  Porch  of  Church  of  St.  Lawrence  (Lorenzkirche)  Nuremberg  (Pho.)  367 

376.  North  Side  Portal,  Freiburg  Cathedral  (Pho.) 368 

377.  General  View,  Freiburg  Cathedral  with  Open  Work  Spire  (Pho.)  368 

378.  Central  Portal,  Strassburg  Cathedral  (Pho.) 371 

379.  North  Side  Portal,  Strassburg  Cathedral  (Pho.) 371 

380.  Altar-piece  or  Reredos,  Church  at  Esslingen  (Hauser)    ....  369 
380A.  Carved  Pew  End,  German  Middle  Gothic  (Gewerbehalle)   .     .     .370 

381.  Late  German  Gothic  Carving  (Gewerbehalle) 373 

382.  Shrine  or  Reredos  in  Church  at  Braunau  (Arch.  Rec.),  and  Details 

from  West  Portal,  Freiburg  Cathedral  (Pho.) 372 

383.  Interior  of  "New"  Cathedral  of  Salamanca  (Pho.) 367 

384.  Patio  (Court)  of  the  Infantado  Palace  at  Guadalajara  (Pho.)  .      .  375 

385.  Interior  of  Chapel  of  the  Condestabile  in  Burgos  Cathedral  (Pho.)  375 

386.  Mudejar  Detail    (Gewerbehalle) 374 

387.  Part  of  Flank  of  Cathedral  of  Florence   (Pho.) 376 

388.  Part  of  Front  of  Orvieto  Cathedral  (Pho.) 381 

389.  Details  from  Lucca  Cathedral:  Sculptured  Shaft  and  Marble  In- 

lay    (Gewerbehalle) 378 

390.  Capital  from  a  Tomb  in  Church  of  Santa  Chiara,  Naples  .     .     .  379 

391.  Wall-Tomb  in  San  Antonio,  Padua  (C.  U.) 380 

392.  Tomb  of  Can  Mastino  II  Scaligero,  Verona  (Pho.) 382 

392A.  Tomb  of  Giovanni  Scaligero,  Verona  (Pho.) 382 

393.  Facade  of  Sienna  Cathedral   (Pho.) 385 

394.  Twisted  Shaft  and  Marble  Inlay,  Campanile,  Florence  (Pho.)   .     .  385 

xxiii 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

395.  Tracery,  Or  San  Michele,  Florence  (Pho.) 386 

396.  Front  of  a  Gothic  Palace  in  Venice 383 

397.  Detail  from  Altar  Canopy,  Or  San  Michele,  Florence  (Pho.)    .     .  389 

398.  Detail,  Painted  Wall  in  a  Chapel  of  Santa  Croce,  Florence  (Pho.)  386 

399.  Carving  from  Arch  of  "Mandorla"  Door,  Cathedral  of  Florence  384 

400.  Detail,  Choir  Stalls  of  Molfetta  Cathedral,  now  in  Museum  (Pho.)  389 

401.  Capitals  from  Lower  Arcade  of  Doge's  Palace  (C.  U.)  ....  387 


ZZ1V 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

ANCIENT  AND  MEDIEVAL 


I 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

ANCIENT  AND  MEDIEVAL 

CHAPTER  I 

INTRODUCTORY 

Definitions. 

The  history  of  ornament  is  the  record  of  the  origins 
and  progressive  developments  of  decorative  design. 
By  decoration  is  meant  the  adornment  or  embellish- 
ment of  an  object  by  purposed  modifications  of  its  form 
or  color.  When  decoration  is  effected  by  the  repetition 
or  combination  of  specific  form-elements  according  to 
a  predetermined  scheme,  the  form-elements  are  called 
motives.  Collectively  they  are  denominated  ornament, 
and  when  combined  or  repeated  according  to  some  defi- 
nite geometric  system,  they  are  said  to  form  a  pattern. 
Thus  on  page  9,  Figure  1  is  an  ornament;  so  is  Figure 
2,  which  shows  a  geometric  pattern  formed  with  the  mo- 
tive aa.  Pure  ornament  is  that  in  which  the  decorative 
purpose  wholly  dominates  the  design,  as  distinguished 
from  decorative  painting  and  decorative  sculpture,  in 
which  the  decorative  purpose  is  subordinate  to  the  pic- 
torial or  sculptural  representation  of  a  fact,  event  or 
idea. 

3 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

Thus  in  the  Parthenon  the  sculptured  pediments, 
metopes  and  frieze,  representing  episodes  and  scenes 
from  Greek  mythology  and  legend,  are  examples  of 
decorative  sculpture;  while  the  triglyphs,  antefixas  and 
painted  moldings  are  examples  of  pure  ornament. 

There  is  a  large  field  of  decorative  design  which  par- 
takes somewhat  of  the  character  of  both  pure  ornament 
and  pictorial  or  sculptural  representation.  Such  are 
symbolical  and  grotesque  figures,  masks,  lions'  heads 
and  much  floral  ornament,  all  of  which  are  at  once 
decorative  and  representative.  Each  example  of  such 
decoration  must  be  classified  according  to  its  predomi- 
nant purpose.  Thus,  although  Figure  1  plainly  pic- 
tures a  grapevine,  its  formally  artificial  arrangement 
shows  it  to  be  intended  as  an  ornament  and  not  a  picture. 
There  are,  however,  many  cases  in  which  the  purposes 
of  representation  and  decoration  are  so  evenly  balanced 
that  they  may  be  with  equal  propriety  assigned  to  either 
category. 

Classifications. 

Pure  ornament  may  be  classified  according  to  any  of 
several  principles :  e.g.,  according  to — 

A.  Its  way  of  covering  space. 

B.  The  manner  and  means  of  its  production. 

C.  The  method  or  principle  of  its  design. 

D.  The  object  to  which  it  is  applied. 

E.  Its  relation  to  structure. 

A.  According  to  the  way  in  which  ornament  covers 
space  it  may  be  divided  into  linear,  all-over,  and  radiat- 
ing ornament.  Each  of  these  may  be  subdivided  into 

4 


INTRODUCTORY 

continuous  and  discontinuous  ornament.  In  linear 
ornament  the  motives  are  arranged  in  sequence  along  a 
single  line,  to  form  bands  or  borders,  as  in  Figure  3,  in 
which  a  and  b  are  continuous  linear  patterns,  and  c  dis- 
continuous. In  "all-over"  patterns  the  units  are  ar- 
ranged along  two  or  more  intersecting  systems  of  lines 
so  as  to  cover  a  broad  surface  ( Figures  2,  5,  8) .  In  radi- 
ating patterns  the  surface  is  covered  by  units  radiating 
from  a  central  point  (Figures  6,  7).  In  each  of  these 
cases  the  ornament  may  be  continuous,  each  unit  being 
connected  with  its  neighbors  (Figures  3,  a,  b;  Figure  18, 
page  23)  or  discontinuous  as  in  Figure  3,  c  or  Figure  5. 
Continuous  "all-overs"  forming  a  mesh  of  two  sets  of 
intersecting  lines  are  called  quarries  (from  the  French 
carre  =  square).  Discontinuous  all-overs  are  called 
powderings;  more  rarely  they  are  said  to  be  spangled 
(Figure  5).  When  isolated  units  are  powdered  or 
spangled  in  the  meshes  of  a  quarry,  the  combination  is 
called  a  diaper.  Figure  5  is  a  powdering;  2  is  a  quarry ; 
8  a  diaper  pattern. 

B.  According  to  the  means  by  which  the  ornament 
is  produced,  it  is  classified  as  plastic  or  chromatic.  Plas- 
tic ornament  is  such  as  depends  on  light-and-shade  for 
its  effect,  being  produced  by  raising  or  depressing  the 
surface  in  various  ways,  as  bjr  molding,  carving,  hammer- 
ing, stamping,  etc.  (Figures  4,  6,  9).  Chromatic  orna- 
ment is  all  such  as  depends  on  color  (including  black 
and  white)  for  its  effect,  as  in  Figure  10  representing  a 
painted  band.  Certain  classes  of  textile  ornament,  like 
lace  and  embroidery,  in  which  open-work  and  relief  are 
depended  on  to  produce  the  pattern,  are  included  under 

5 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

plastic  ornament.  Chromatic  ornament  comprises  all 
painted  ornament,  enamel,  inlay,  stained  glass  and 
mosaic,  and  all  such  textile  ornament  as  depends  upon 
effects  of  color,  whether  produced  by  weaving,  printing, 
needle  work,  or  otherwise. 

C.  According  to  the  source  and  principle  of  its  de- 
sign, ornament  is  divisible  into  the  three  categories  of 
conventional,  naturalistic,  and  conventionalize 'd-natural 
ornament.  Conventional  ornament  is  in  general  that 
which  is  the  product  of  fancy  or  definite  rule  working 
upon  pure  form,  and  is  for  the  most  part  geometric  in 
character.  Zigzags,  frets,  spirals  and  all  geometric 
patterns  fall  under  this  head  (Figures  3,  7).  Natural- 
istic ornament  comprises  all  decorative  forms  derived 
from  Nature  directly  and  with  little  or  no  change,  such 
as  flower  and  leaf  forms,  lion's  heads,  and  the  like,  as 
in  Figures  1,  10.  When,  however,  natural  forms  are 
subjected  to  purposed  modifications  to  adapt  them  to 
decorative  effect,  they  are  said  to  be  conventionalized; 
and  this  class  of  ornament  constitutes  more  than  half 
of  all  the  ornament  of  nearly  all  the  historic  styles.  The 
acanthus  leaf  (Fig.  174),  and  a  whole  world  of  floral 
motives  in  both  classic  and  medieval  art,  belong  in  this 
category  (Figures  4,  6,  9,  10,  on  page  9,  and  16  b,  20, 
28  on  page  23).  The  nature-form  is  subjected  to  one 
or  more  of  the  operations  of  regularization  of  details 
that  in  nature  occur  irregularly  or  unsymmetrically ; 
suppression  or  abstraction  of  features  that  occur  in 
nature  but  are  repugnant  to  the  desired  decorative  effect ; 
exaggeration  of  minor  details;  multiplication  of  what 
occurs  only  once  or  at  rare  intervals  in  the  natural  ob- 

6 


INTRODUCTORY 

ject;  and  combination,  or  the  union  in  one  design  of  ele- 
ments that  do  not  in  Nature  occur  together. 

D.  According  to  the  object  to  which  it  is  applied, 
ornament  is  divided  into  architectural  ornament,  applied 
to  or  executed  in  or  upon  fixed  structures,  and  industrial 
ornament,  which  adorns  movable  objects.     Capitals  of 
columns,  friezes,  gargoyles,  finials,  cornices,  and  balus- 
trades are  examples  of  architectural  ornament;  vase- 
decorations,     furniture-carving,     silverware,     jewelry, 
laces,  book-covers  belong  technically  in  the  field  of 
industrial  ornament.     There  is  a  large  class  of  decorative 
works  that  may  be  placed  in  either  category,  such  as 
pulpits,  choir-stalls,  monumental  candelabra  and  the 
like. 

E.  Ornament  may  again  be  divided  into  two  cate- 
gories according  to  its  relation  to  structure.     Structural 
ornament  is  that  which  belongs  to,  grows  out  of,  or 
strongly  suggests,  the  structural  framework  and  consti- 
tution of  the  object  ornamented:   such  are   capitals, 
cornices,  balustrades,  window-trims,  tracery,  moldings, 
paneling,  metal  scroll-work  and  the  like.     Applied  orna- 
ment is  that  which  is  added  to  an  object  already  complete 
structurally;  such  as  painted  ornament,  mosaic,  inlay, 
paper-hangings,  tapestries,  etc. 

Significance  of  Classifications. 

All  these  classifications  are  devices  for  convenience 
in  the  discussion  and  criticism  of  ornament,  and  are 
important  only  as  they  serve  this  purpose.  They  cor- 
respond to  real  differences  of  design,  process  and  pur- 
pose, but  there  is  always  a  wide  borderland  in  which 

7 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

classification  is  not  easy,  and  perhaps  not  important. 
Each  classification  covers  the  entire  field  of  ornament, 
so  that  any  decorative  design  may  be  assigned  its  place 
in  all  five  classifications.  Thus  the  carving  in  the 
spandrels  of  Westminster  Abbey  (Fig.  367)  would  be 
(A)  a  diaper,  (B)  plastic  ornament  of  (C)  convention- 
alized-natural  flowers,  (D)  architectural  and  (E)  either 
structural  or  applied,  as  one  may  prefer  to  consider  it. 
A  fret-border  embroidered  on  an  altar-cloth  or  painted 
on  a  vase,  would  be  a  linear,  chromatic,  conventional, 
industrial,  applied  ornament.  These  classifications 
depend  upon  one's  critical  judgment,  especially  in  C, 
D  and  E,  so  that  differences  in  the  classifications  of  the 
same  ornament  by  different  writers  are  frequent  and 
unimportant,  especially  where  a  design  combines  ele- 
ments from  different  categories  of  the  same  class,  as 
when  carving  and  color  are  combined,  or  natural  forms 
blended  with  purely  geometric  or  conventional  elements. 

Meaning  of  History. 

Decorative  design  appears  at  first  sight  to  be  so 
entirely  a  matter  of  the  designer's  unhampered  fancy, 
that  a  history  of  the  art  might  seem  an  impossibility; 
for  how  can  there  be  a  history  of  millions  of  indepen- 
dent, unrelated  fancies?  But  as  a  matter  of  fact  no 
designer  is  or  ever  has  been  wholly  free.  In  the  first 
place,  he  knows  but  an  infinitesimal  fraction  of  the  world 
of  possible  decorative  forms — those,  in  short,  which  he 
has  been  taught  or  has  seen,  or  has  learned  by  experi- 
ment. He  is  hampered  by  the  traditions  of  his  art,  by 
the  taste  of  his  age  and  the  demands  of  the  market,  by  the 


tools  and  materials  he  uses,  by  his  own  mental  and  artistic 
limitations.  By  reason  of  common  limitations  and  en- 
vironment, the  designers  of  any  one  place  and  time  tend 
to  work  alike  in  certain  respects,  and  those  character- 
istics which  are  common  to  their  work  constitute  the 
style  of  that  time  and  region.  The  history  of  ornament 
is,  then,  the  record  of  the  origin,  growth,  decay,  succes- 
sion and  inter-relation  of  the  various  styles  of  decorative 
design. 

The  Historic  Styles. 

"Style"  is  distinctive  character  or  quality.  The  his- 
toric styles  of  ornament  are  the  distinctive  ways,  methods 
and  systems  of  decorative  design  which  have  prevailed 
in  different  countries  at  different  times,  and  are  desig- 
nated usually  by  the  names  of  the  peoples  who  have 
practised  them  and  by  the  age,  century,  period  or  reign 
in  which  they  have  flourished:  as,  for  example,  the 
Roman  Imperial  Style,  the  French  Gothic,  Italian 
Early  Renaissance  and  American  Colonial  Style,  etc. 

Each  historic  style  is  seen  to  have  passed  through  the 
successive  stages  of  infancy  and  early  growth,  maturity 
and  decline,  after  which  it  disappears,  usually  giving 
place  to  a  new  style,  either  derived  from  some  other 
civilization,  or  growing  up  out  of  the  declining  style  by 
the  introduction  of  some  new  germinant  principle  of  de- 
sign. Of  the  great  variety  of  ornament- forms  produced 
in  any  one  period,  a  few  find  favor  and  are  constantly  re- 
peated, while  the  others  disappear.  A  tendency  thus  as- 
serts itself  in  a  given  direction,  and  by  countless  in- 
finitesimal changes  of  these  familiar  forms  along  the  line 

10 


INTRODUCTORY 

of  this  tendency  the  style  is  developed  and  then  gradu- 
ally transformed.  The  historic  styles  are  phenomena  of 
growth,  of  racial  and  epochal  environments,  not  sud- 
denly occurring  phases  due  to  chance.  No  man  and  no 
coterie  of  men  can  create  a  real  and  living  style;  for 
style  depends  not  alone  upon  the  designer,  but  also  on 
his  inheritance  and  environment. 

The  "Biology"  of  Styles. 

The  development  of  styles  presents  many  analogies  to 
biological  phenomena.  Transmission  by  inheritance, 
persistence  of  type,  occasional  reversions  towards  the 
primitive  type,  exceptional  forms  analogous  to  the; 
"sports"  that  occur  in  Nature — all  these  are  met  with 
in  the  history  of  ornament,  as  well  as  the  constant  evolu- 
tionary progress  from  simple  to  complex,  from  the 
rudimentary  to  the  highly  organized.  There  is  also 
observable  in  the  development  of  ornament  a  phenom- 
enon which  may  be  called  convergence,  in  which  two 
lines  of  development  from  different  sources  approach 
each  other  and  finally  coalesce.  The  resulting  form  or 
pattern  resembles  somewhat  both  its  ancestors,  though 
constituting  a  new  type  in  itself.  It  is  therefore  often 
impossible  to  assign  a  single  origin  to  an  ornament-type ; 
and  much  of  the  discussion  and  controversy  about  dis- 
puted origins  might  be  avoided  by  recognizing  the  orna- 
ment in  question  as  derived  by  convergence  from  both 
or  all  of  the  several  sources  to  which  the  disputants 
assign  it. 

In  Figure  11,  page  9,  a,  b  and  c  suggest  the  pos- 
sible evolution  of  the  "trilobe  lotus,"  c  from  its  simplest 

11 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

painted  form,  a  in  Egyptian  ornament,  while  df  e  and  / 
illustrate  the  persistence  of  this  motive  in  Greek,  Roman 
and  Gothic  ornament  respectively,  the  whole  covering 
a  period  of  nearly  3000  years.  In  Figure  12  a  Greek 
vase  ornament  of  anthemions  is  shown  at  a,  followed  by 
a  Roman  derivative  modified  by  acanthus-leaf  details. 
The  three  lower  examples  are  Byzantine  acanthus 
leaves  which  have  converged  towards  the  anthemion  type 
to  such  an  extent  that  they  may  with  equal  propriety  be 
called  anthemions  or  acanthus  leaves.  Figure  13  (in 
which  b  is  an  enlargement  of  c  in  Figure  12)  further 
illustrates  this  convergence  of  the  Byzantine  acanthus 
towards  the  Greek  anthemion-type,  though  this  latter 
was  probably  quite  unknown  to  most  Byzantine  artists. 
In  Figure  14  we  have  a  curious  example  of  accidental 
reversion  towards  an  ancient  type:  the  left-hand  form 
a  being  an  Egyptian  representation  of  some  water- 
plant,  while  the  two  anthemion-like  forms  at  the  right, 
b,  are  late  Byzantine  conventional  representations  of 
the  funereal  cypress  tree ! 

Prehistoric,  Primitive  and  Savage  Ornament. 

It  remains  to  consider  briefly  the  relation  to  historic 
art  of  those  early  forms  of  ornament  which  were  pro- 
duced before  the  dawn  of  the  historic  cultures,  as  well  as 
of  the  ornament  of  savage  and  barbarous  peoples  that 
have  remained  outside  the  currents  of  modern  civiliza- 
tion. So  far  as  the  arts  of  the  cavemen  of  the 
paleolithic  and  neolithic  ages  are  concerned,  there  is  no 
traceable  connection  between  them  and  the  earliest  his- 
toric civilizations — those  of  Egypt  and  Chaldea :  the  in- 

12 


INTRODUCTORY 

termediate  links  have  perished  absolutely.  With  re- 
gard to  savage  ornament,  the  fact  that  it  is  contempo- 
raneous with  civilized  and  even  modern  cultures,  makes 
possible  an  influence  from  the  latter  upon  the  savage  art 
which  establishes  certain  occasioned  resemblances  be- 
tween the  two.  But  there  is  no  evidence  as  yet  discov- 
erable of  the  unaided  development  of  savage  art  into 
civilized  and  progressive  art.  The  essential  character 
of  savage  art  is  that  of  arrested  development.  It  is 
often  interesting  and  effective,  but  seems  incapable  of 
further  progress.  It  is  sterile,  and  as  a  subject  of  study, 
quite  outside  the  field  of  the  historic  styles. 

Primitive  ornament,  on  the  other  hand,  is  ornament  in 
the  earliest  stages  of  its  development.  The  term  may 
therefore  be  applied  to  the  beginnings  qf  historic  art  or 
of  particular  styles,  as  well  as  to  that  of  the  Stone  Age 
and  prehistoric  times.  Primitive  ornament  is  fre- 
quently uncouth,  while  savage  ornament  is  often  highly 
elaborated  (see  Plates  I  and  II)  ;  but  the  latter  has 
ceased  to  advance,  while  primitive  ornament  often  re- 
veals the  promise  and  potency  of  indefinite  life  and 
growth.  The  one  is  a  dwarf,  the  other  an  infant. 

Six  Propositions. 

The  history  of  art  seems  to  bear  out  the  following 
propositions : 

I.  The  earliest  known  historic  ornament  belongs  to 
civilizations  already  well  advanced. 

II.  The  primitive  origins  of  this  earliest  known  his- 
toric ornament  have  yet  to  be  discovered  and  identified. 

Prehistoric  remains  in  Egypt  are  being  studied,  and 

is 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

have  thrown  some  light  upon  the  earliest  stages  of  art  in 
that  most  ancient  of  known  civilizations;  but  the  prob- 
lem has  not  yet  been  by  any  means  fully  solved. 

III.  Savage  or  aboriginal  ornament  has  never  yet 
been  known  to  develop  unaided  into  a  civilized  and  pro- 
gressive art. 

IV.  The  ornament  of  every  historic  style  is  found 
to  be  chiefly  derived  from  that  of  some  older  civilization, 
until  we  reach  back  to  the  earliest  historic  art  of  Egypt 
and  Chaldea,  beyond  which  its  sources  have  not  yet  been 
traced. 

V.  Each  historic  culture  has  imposed  upon  the  decora- 
tive art  thus  inherited  or  borrowed  a  development  and 
form  of  its  own,  either  by  blending  with  the  borrowed 
forms  others  of  its  own  invention,  or  by  progressive 
modifications  of  detail,  or  by  both  together. 

VI.  In  these  modifications  of  the  imported  or  in- 
herited ornament-forms,  their  original  use  and  signifi- 
cance are  in  time  lost  sight  of  or  ignored.     Magical 
forms  become  mere  symbols,  symbolic  forms  mere  orna- 
ment; and  structural  forms  are  applied  where  the  con- 
struction does  not  demand  them,  so  that  they  become 
in  time  motives  of  architectural  decoration  pure  and 
simple. 

Value  of  the  Study  of  Ornament  Styles. 

The  importance  of  this  study  lies  in  its  value  not  only 
to  the  designer,  in  enabling  him  to  design  consistently, 
either  by  following  a  given  style  closely  or  by  diverging 
from  it  intelligently ;  but  also  to  the  archeologist  and  the 
student  of  history.  For  the  style  of  a  work  of  decora- 

14 


.      INTRODUCTORY 

tion  is  frequently  a  more  reliable  index  of  its  date  than 
written  documents,  which  have  more  than  once  been 
proved  to  be  incorrect  or  to  have  been  misinterpreted, 
by  the  evidence  of  decorative  style  in  the  work  under 
discussion.  The  character  and  relations  of  the  ornament 
of  different  countries,  peoples  and  times  have  often  af- 
forded valuable  suggestions,  confirmations  or  corrections 
as  to  the  historic  movements  and  relations  of  these  peo- 
ples, and  an  index  of  their  advancement  in  civilization. 
The  history  of  ornament  is  thus  an  important  division 
of  the  general  history  of  civilization. 

Method  of  this  History. 

The  history  of  ornament  may  be  treated  according 
to  either  of  two  methods.  By  one  of  these  the  origin 
and  development  of  the  dominant  motives  of  ornament 
are  taken  up  in  succession,  each  of  these  being  traced 
through  all  of  the  styles  in  which  it  is  formed.1  By  the 
other,  which  is  followed  in  this  volume,  attention  is  di- 
rected to  the  origin  and  development  of  the  historic 
styles  of  ornament,  all  the  various  motives,  kinds  and 
types  of  ornament  of  each  country  and  period  being 
considered  in  discussing  the  style  of  that  time  and  re- 
gion. In  this  volume  we  shall  treat  of  the  styles  of 
ancient  and  medieval  art,  leaving  the  Oriental  and  mod- 
ern styles  to  be  treated  in  another  volume. 

Summary  of  the  Sequence  of  Styles. 

Geographically  as  well  as  chronologically,  this  study 

i  This  is  the  method  followed  by  Mr.  G.  A.  T.  Middleton  in  his  "Motives  of 
Ornament"  (New  York,  1914)  and  by  myself  in  a  series  of  papers  on  the  "De- 
velopment of  Decorative  Motives"  in  the  "American  Architect,"  1898-1901. 

15 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

begins  with  Egyptian  art  in  the  Nile  Valley.  The  art 
of  early  Chaldea  in  the  valley  of  the  Tigris-Euphrates, 
though  rivaling  that  of  Egypt  in  its  antiquity,  is  less  im- 
portant in  the  domain  of  ornament  than  the  Egyptian, 
and  less  important  also  than  that  of  Assyria,  which  de- 
veloped later  in  the  same  river  basin.  Greek  art  both 
inherited  and  borrowed  from  both  these  arts ;  little,  per- 
haps, directly,  but  much  through  the  intermediate  arts  of 
Phenicia  and  of  the  early  Mediterranean  cultures  in 
Crete,  Mycenae,  and  other  ^Egean  centers.  All  these 
borrowed  elements  were  completely  transformed  in 
Greek  art,  whose  developed  forms  passed  into  Roman 
art  and  were  again  transformed  by  the  Roman  genius. 
Greek  and  Roman  art  have  tinged  that  of  all  subsequent 
ages  among  the  European  and  Western  nations.  The 
growth  of  Christianity  after  the  fall  of  Rome  developed 
new  centers  of  civilization  and  new  conceptions  in  art, 
giving  rise  to  Byzantine  art  in  the  East  and  to  Roman- 
esque and  Gothic  art  in  the  West.  For  a  thousand 
years  the  forms  of  Roman  art  appeared  to  be  forgotten, 
except  for  faint  reminiscences  of  them  in  Italy.  Yet 
like  the  Egyptian  wheat,  buried  with  a  mummy  but 
springing  to  life  after  a  score  of  centuries  in  the  tomb, 
the  vital  elements  of  Roman  art  revived  with  the 
Renaissance  of  classic  studies  in  the  fifteenth  century 
in  Italy,  and  have  largely  dominated  Western  art  ever 
since. 

Meanwhile  in  the  Orient  other  ideals  have  prevailed, 
and  although  the  Mohammedan  nations  have  in  each 
case  founded  their  art  on  that  of  the  Christian  peoples 
they  have  conquered,  they  have  developed  it  under  the 

16 


INTRODUCTORY 

dominion  of  their  own  ideals  into  something  quite  apart 
from  Western  art.  China  and  Japan  have  also  their 
own  independent  though  related  styles  of  decoration; 
while  the  decorative  art  of  the  non-Moslem  Hindus  rep- 
resents another  group  of  styles  remote  in  character  from 
those  of  Europe. 

The  problem  of  early  American  art  in  Peru,  Central 
America  and  Mexico  is  one  of  great  uncertainty  and 
the  subject  of  no  little  controversy.  The  art  of  these 
countries  offers  one  of  the  richest  as  well  as  most  diffi- 
cult fields  for  architectural  exploration  and  study.  The 
expeditions  conducted  by  Professor  Bingham  of  Yale 
University  have  added  much  to  our  knowledge  of  the 
monuments;  but  the  subject  has  not  yet  entered  the 
domain  of  precise  history,  and  must  lie  outside  the  scope 
of  a  manual  like  this. 

Books  Recommended. 

[The  bibliography  of  ornament  is  so  extensive,  and  includes 
so  many  works  of  doubtful  value  to  the  student,  that  an  ex- 
haustive list  of  books  on  the  subject  of  each  chapter  of  this 
work  is  out  of  the  question.  The  lists  of  "Books  Recom- 
mended" have  been  made  to  include  the  most  important  works 
of  reference  generally  available  in  the  larger  libraries  of  cities 
and  educational  institutions,  as  well  as  text-books  and  hand- 
books of  a  more  popular  character,  in  English,  French  and 
German  (besides  a  few  in  Italian  and  Spanish).  In  such  a 
selected  list  it  will  inevitably  happen  that  some  titles  will  be 
omitted  which,  in  the  reader's  judgment,  ought  to  be  included, 
and  others  included  which  might  well  have  been  omitted;  for 
individual  judgments  must  differ  in  many  cases.  The  author 
and  the  publishers  will  welcome  suggestions  for  the  improve- 
ment of  these  lists  in  future  editions.] 

1.  On  General  Theory  of  Ornament:  BOURGOIX:  Theorie  de 
Vornement  (Paris,  1883). — W.  G.  COLLJNGWOOD:  Philosophy 

17 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

of  Ornament  (Sunnyside,  1883). — H.  PFEIFER:  Formenlehre 
des  Ornaments  (Stuttgart,  1906). — GOBLET  D'ALVIELLA:  The 
Migration  of  Symbols  (Westminster,  1894). — A.  C.  HADDON  : 
Evolution  in  Art  (London,  1895). — A.  D.  F.  HAMLIN:  Devel- 
opment of  Decorative  Motives  (in  American  Architect,  New 
York,  1898—1901). — J.  HAUSELMANN:  Studien  und  Ideen  iiber 
Ursprung,  Wesen  und  Stil  des  Ornaments  (Zurich,  1889). — 
F.  E.  HULME:  Birth  and  Development  of  Ornament  (London, 
1893). — J.  RANKE:  Anfdnge  der  Kunst  (Berlin,  1879). — ALOIS 
RIEGL:  Stilfragen;  Grundlegungen  zu  einer  Geschichte  der 
Ornamentik  (Berlin,  1893). — G.  SEMPER:  Der  Stil  m  der 
technischen  Kiinsten,  oder  Praktische  Aesthetik  (Munich,  1878- 
79). — G.  STURM:  Animals  in  Ornament  (London,  1895). 

2.  General  Handbooks  and  Collections.  DOLMETSCH:  Der 
Ornamentenschatz  (Stuttgart,  1889;  also  an  English  edition, 
London,  1912). — EBE:  Die  Schmuckformen  der  Monumental- 
bauten  aus  alien  Stilepochen  (Leipzig,  1896). — L.  GAUCHEREL: 
Exemples  de  decoration  appliquee  etc.  (Paris,  1857). — R. 
GLAZIER:  Manual  of  Historic  Ornament  (London,  1906). — 
GROPIUS  und  LOHDE:  Archiv  fur  omamentale  Kunst  etc.  (Ber- 
lin, 1876-79). — E.  J.  B.  GUILLAUME:  Histoire  de  Vart  et  de 
Vornement  (Paris,  1888). — D.  GUILMARD:  La  connaissance  des 
styles  de  V ornementation  (Paris,  1849). — A  German  edition  of 
the  same  under  the  title  Geschichte  der  Ornamentik  (Berlin, 
1860). — J.  HAUSELMANN:  Die  Stylarten  des  Ornaments  in  den 
verschiedenen  Kunstepochen  (Zurich,  1882). — J.  E.  JACOB- 
STHAL:  Grammatik  der  Ornamente  (Berlin,  1874;  with  large 
wall-plates  for  class  use). — OWEN  JONES:  Grammar  of  Orna- 
ment (London,  1857;  new  edition,  smaller  size,  London,  1910). 
— F.  K.  KLIMSCH:  Ornaments  (London,  n.  d.). — MECHIN:  Dic- 
tionnaire  de  Vart  ornemental  de  tous  les  styles  (Paris,  1888— 91 ). 
— F.  S.  MEYER:  Omamentale  Formenlehre  (Leipzig,  1886): 
English  edition  under  title  Handbook  of  Ornament  (New  York, 
1898?). — R.  NEWBERRY:  Gleanings  from  Ornamental  Art  of 
Every  Style  (London,  1863). — R.  PFNOR:  Ornementation 
usuelle  de  toutes  les  epoques  (Paris,  1866-68). — A.  RACINET: 
UOrnement  polychrome  (Paris,  1869—87). — H.  SHAW:  En- 
cyclopaedia of  Ornament  (London,  1842). — J.  B.  WARING:  Il- 
lustrations of  Architecture  and  Ornament  (London,  1871). — 

18 


INTRODUCTORY 

J.  WARD:  Historic  Ornament  (London,  1898).  — G.  E.  WES- 
SELY:  Das  Ornament  und  die  Kunstindustrie  in  ihrer  geschicht- 
liche  Entwickelung  (Berlin,  1877). 

In  the  above  list  the  Grammar  of  Ornament  of  Owen  Jones 
and  Ornement  Polychrome  of  Racinet  are  monumental  collec- 
tions of  decorative  designs  in  color,  veritable  encyclopaedias 
of  ornament  of  all  kinds  except  the  architectural,  of  which  there 
are  only  a  few  examples  in  Owen  Jones,  and  none  in  Racinet. 
The  Dolmetsch  collection,  second  only  to  the  above  two  in  rich- 
ness and  elegance  of  presentation,  contains  a  fair  proportion 
of  illustrations  from  architecture.  Meyer's  Handbook  of 
Ornament  is  another  standard  collection,  arranged  not  by  styles 
but  by  topics  and  categories  of  subjects.  Glazier's  Manual 
of  Historic  Ornament  is  excellent  as  far  as  it  goes,  but  its 
modest  size  makes  impossible  a  complete  presentation  of  any 
of  the  styles.  Speltz's  Styles  of  Ornament  is  the  most  compre- 
hensive of  all  the  smaller  collections,  covering  all  the  styles 
both  of  architectural  and  industrial  ornament  with  a  wealth 
of  illustrations  in  black-and-white.  The  new  edition,  revised 
by  R.  Phene  Spiers,  of  London,  is  especially  recommended. 
The  Prang  Educational  Company  publish  an  excellent  series 
of  Plates  of  Historic  Ornament,  in  color,  based  on  a  series  orig- 
inally edited  by  the  late  Professor  W.  R.  Ware. 


19 


CHAPTER  II 

PRIMITIVE   AND   SAVAGE   ORNAMENT 

The  Origins. 

When  and  how  did  decorative  art  first  begin?  The 
question  can  never  receive  a  final  and  complete  answer, 
since  the  oldest  extant  specimens  of  ornamental  art, 
dating  back  to  the  palaeolithic  age,  betray  a  skill  which 
points  to  beginnings  in  a  still  more  remote  past. 
The  dagger-handle  of  carved  reindeer  bone  in  Figure 
15,  representing  a  wounded  fawn,  is  a  surprisingly  skil- 
ful adaptation  of  naturalistic  representation  to  decora- 
tive use;  it  dates  from  the  neolithic  period  of  the  Stone 
Age.  Chipped  flint  knives  and  remarkably  life-like 
sketches  of  animals  engraved  on  bone,  including  the 
prehistoric  mammoth,  found  in  strata  of  great  antiquity, 
likewise  suggest  long  antecedent  periods  of  training. 

The  answer  to  our  query  is  generally  sought  by 
anthropologists  in  the  work  and  processes  of  modern 
savage  tribes.1  The  most  generally  accepted  theory  is 
that  which  derives  the  earliest  ornament  from  primitive 
superstitions.  The  savage — and  presumably  primitive 
man  did  likewise — instinctively  animates  or  personifies 
all  the  forces  and  most  of  the  phenomena  of  Nature. 

i  Consult  however  the  query  raised  by  Dr.  Talcott  Williams  in  a  paper 
printed  in  the  "Report  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution"  for  1896  entitled, 
"Was  Primitive  Man  a  Modern  Savage?" 

20 


PRIMITIVE  AND  SAVAGE  ORNAMENT 

He  fails  to  distinguish  clearly  between  the  real  and  the 
imagined,  the  animate  and  inanimate,  and  ascribes  to 
fancied  resemblances  the  qualities  of  the  thing  re- 
sembled. Hence  he  seeks  to  portray,  imitate  or  suggest 
whatever  force  or  thing  he  wishes  to  have  or  control,  as- 
cribing to  these  caricatures  the  powers  of  their  originals. 
An  eye  painted  on  a  canoe  gives  the  canoe  and  its 
owner  the  power  to  steer  a  safe  course ;  a  bird  on  the  stern 
gives  it  speed  (see  Plate  II,  21) ;  a  human  face  with  a 
mouth  full  of  fierce  teeth  imparts  fierceness  and  cour- 
age to  the  bearer  of  the  weapon  or  other  object  on  which 
it  is  carved  or  painted.  Figure  17,  page  23,  illustrates 
the  head  of  a  Mangaia  (New  Zealand)  ceremonial  spear 
to  be  borne  by  a  chief:  it  represents,  inverted,  a  tongue 
protruding  from  a  mouth  set  with  sharp  teeth  beneath 
two  huge  eyes.  The  protruding  tongue  signifies  defi- 
ance ;  the  teeth,  ferocity ;  the  eyes,  keen  vision ;  together 
they  constitute  a  powerful  amulet,  magically  endowing 
the  chief  with  bravery,  ferocity  and  far-sightedness. 
But  it  will  be  noted  that  the  entire  representation  is  dec- 
oratively  effective;  indeed,  the  decorative  purpose  quite 
overmasters  all  idea  of  naturalistic  portrayal.  A  like 
purpose  is  observed  in  the  Papuan  "manhood  belts" 
(Figure  18),  on  which  the  scratched  patterns  of  human 
features  are  fetishes  imparting  to  the  wearer  the  manly 
qualities  they  symbolize. 

Such  a  representation  is  called  a  fetish,  and  the  super- 
stition to  which  it  is  due,  fetishism.  It  is  one  manifesta- 
tion of  what  is  generically  known  as  animism,  of  which 
another  form  is  totemism.  Among  certain  tribes,  as  in 
Alaska,  each  family  or  clan  has  its  own  animal  or  other 

21 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

object  not  merely  as  a  heraldic  symbol,  but  as  a  posses- 
sion conferring  its  qualities  on  the  whole  clan:  such  a 
symbol  is  called  a  totem.  An  Alaskan  totem-pole, 
like  the  quarterings  of  a  coat-of-arms,  portrays  the 
pedigree  and  relationships  of  the  occupants  of  the  tent  or 
tepee  before  which  it  stands.  According  to  the  animis- 
tic theory,  therefore,  primitive  and  savage  ornament  is 
believed  to  have  grown  up  out  of  the  carving  or  painting 
or  weaving  of  fetishes  and  totems  primarily  for  the 
sake  of  their  magical  use.  This  practice  in  time  awak- 
ened the  rudimentary  decorative  instinct;  and  this  in- 
stinct asserting  itself  with  constantly  increasing  force 
has  led  to  the  progressive  modification  of  the  original 
semi-naturalistic  forms  until  they  are  often  no  longer 
recognizable  as  such,  as  in  Figures  17,  18  and  24 
(page  23) ;  Figure  24  showing  patterns  derived  from  the 
head  of  the  frigate-bird. 

The  Technic  Theory. 

Another  theory  attributes  the  awakening  of  the 
decorative  instinct  to  the  processes  and  results  of  primi- 
tive industries,  especially  pottery,  basketry  and  weav- 
ing. In  these  industries  there  occur  inevitably  cer- 
tain rhythmical  repetitions  and  alternations  of  form  or 
color  which  are  in  themselves  decorative.  Thus  in 
grass-weaving  and  basketry,  if  grasses  of  two  colors  are 
alternately  plaited  or  woven  together  a  checker  pattern 
results,  while  simple  variations  in  the  plaiting  produce 
plaids,  quadrangles,  stepped  triangles  and  crosses 
(Figure  19).  The  awakened  decorative  instinct  seizes 
upon  these  effects  and  develops  them  purposefully.  It 

22 


FigIS 


TZtsayan  Jar  C Mexico) 


l5Rimltve  dagger-handle.  l&New&aland'tiki-tiki'motiYe.foyaori  spear-head. Id&puanface-motNes 
19,  Basketry  forms  .2o,Zl,  ftruvian  animal  motives.  22,  Maori  and  Hawaiian  carvings.  Z3Bra- 
Zi/ian  grass  cloth  patterns,  Zf.  f&puan  frigafabird  forms  ?SJ1aori  flute  ornament.  26.tomBmzi/- 

23 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 


then  begins  to  appropriate  for  decorative  use  fetish  and 
totem  forms  (Figures  20,  21,  24,  28)  and  adds  to  these 
other  nature  forms,  which  it  eventually  uses  as  pure 
ornament,  with  little  or  no  regard  for  magical  intent. 
Figure  16  shows  in  a  an  apparently  conventional  orna- 
ment thus  derived  from  the  New  Zealand  totem-figures 
of  women  shown  in  b,  which  represent  the  pedigrees  of 
New  Zealand  chiefs  in  the  female  line.  The  technic  of 
wood-notching  has  converted  these  figures  into  the  orna- 
ment known  as  the  tiki-tiki-tangata. 

It  seems  likely  that  both  theories  are  measurably  cor- 
rect and  must  be  jointly  invoked  to  explain  the  begin- 
nings of  ornament.  The  discovery  and  development  of 
motives  originating  in  technical  processes  and  the  de- 
velopment of  nature-forms  through  animistic  impulses 
have  probably  been  concurrent.  It  seems  quite  clear 
that  nearly  all  spirals,  zigzags,  plaids,  lozenges,  and 
many  other  geometric  motives,  have  originated  in  the 

processes  of  weaving, 
plaiting  and  string-lash- 
ing. Even  the  fact  that 
modern  savage  tribes 
call  these  motives  by  the 
names  of  animals,  winds, 
etc.,  does  not  prove  their 
animistic  origin.  Thus 
m  PLATE  i,  21.  in  Figure  23  the  Indians 

of  Central  Brazil  call  a  the  tunny-fish  pattern,  b  the  liz- 
ard pattern,  and  c  and  d  bat-patterns!  All  four  patterns 
were  probably  technomorphic  in  origin,  and  received 
these  names  as  afterthought  explanations  of  their  origin 

24 


: 

' 

Fio.   29.    DETAIL   FROM    MAORI   PADDLE 


PRIMITIVE  AND  SAVAGE  ORNAMENT 

and  meaning.  For  primitive  man  is  always  a  myth- 
maker,  who  seeks  to  explain  everything  by  a  story  or  by 
some  theory  of  magic;  and  the  widely  different  names 
given  to  the  same  form  by  different  tribes  suggest  that 
their  several  explanations  are  invented  after  the  fact,  not 
handed  down  by  tradition  from  still  more  primitive  ages. 

Character  of  Savage  Ornament. 

Its  artistic  quality  is  often  of  a  high  order,  revealing 
a  keen  sense  of  decorative  propriety,  a  wise  choice  and 
proportioning  of  means  to  ends,  and  great  skill  in  space- 
filling (Plates  I  and  II) .  In  boldness  and  effectiveness 
of  design  it  often  surpasses  the  work  of  more  civilized 
peoples.  If  lacking  in  subtlety  and  the  higher  graces  of 
line  and  movement,  it  is  often  rich,  well  distributed,  and 
executed  with  singular  patience  and  skill.  Structural 
ornament,  in  the  strictest  sense,  hardly  exists  at  all; 
nearly  all  savage  ornament  is  pure  surface-decoration. 
It  consists  largely  of  patterns  of  small  motives  indefi- 
nitely repeated  by  painting,  stamping  or  weaving,  or  by 
surface  carving,  so  as  to  cover  the  whole  or  a  major 
part  of  the  object.  (Figures  16,  20,  22,  23-27;  Plate 

I,  Nos.  4,  6,  8,  13, 15,  21,  23.)     Here  and  there  appears 
a  caricature  of  the  head  or  body  of  a  bird  or  beast  (Plate 

II,  19,  20)  ;  or  even  the  grotesque  head  of  a  man,  as  in 
Fig.  30. 

The  South  Sea  Islands. 

Among  the  most  interesting  developments  of  savage 
decorative  art  are  those  of  certain  Polynesian  peoples, 
particularly  in  New  Guinea  in  the  north  and  New  Zea- 

25 


FIG.    30.    WAR-DRUM 
HEAD,  JAVA. 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

land  in  the  south.  Second  only  to 
these  in  interest  is  the  art  of  the 
Hawaiian,  Friendly  or  Tonga, 
Samoan  and  Fiji  Islands.  Bas- 
ketry, weaving  and  wood-carving 
are  the  chief  artistic  industries  of 
these  peoples ;  their  pottery  is  unim- 
portant. Animism  is  everywhere  in 
evidence  in  these  products:  clubs, 
spears,  paddles,  stone-headed  adzes, 
often  designed  for  ceremonial  and 
not  practical  use,  are  covered  with 
patterns  invested  with  fetishistic  or 
totemistic  meanings.  Many  of  these 
patterns  may,  however,  have  had  a 
technic  origin  in  basketry,  wood-notching,  etc.  (Figure 
29;  Plate  I,  11,  15,21,  23). 

The  patterns  in  Figure  24  (p.  23),  are  all  derived 
from  the  frigate-bird's  head ;  they  are  from  the  Papuan 
Gulf  of  New  Guinea.  The  very  similar  pattern  in  Fig- 
ure 25 — a  pattern  scratched  on  a  Maori  (New  Zealand) 
flute — is  claimed  by  Haddon  2  of  Cambridge  as  having  a 
different  origin,  as  the  art  of  New  Zealand  appears  to 
be  wholly  disconnected  from  the  northern  Polynesian 
styles,  and  the  frigate-bird  does  not  otherwise  figure  in 
Maori  patterns.  Figure  22  shows  a  variation  of  the 
tiki-tiki  pattern  from  New  Zealand,  and  two  narrow 
borders  from  Hawaii,  both  carved  in  wood.  In  Plate  I, 
No.  7  is  a  specimen  of  New  Zealand  tattooing,  an  art 

2  A.  C.  Haddon,  "Evolution  in  Art,"  London,  1895. 

26 


PRIMITIVE  AND  SAVAGE  ORNAMENT 

originating  in  Polynesia,  and  carried  to  high  perfection 
both  in  New  Guinea  and  New  Zealand.  Some  of  the 
tattoo-patterns  appear  to  be  purely  decorative,  conform- 
ing to  the  facial  modeling;  others  have  a  definite  signifi- 
cance as  fetishes  or  as  totems. 

Primitive  American  Ornament. 

Basketry,  weaving  and  pottery  are  the  chief  indus- 
tries of  the  primitive  and  ancient  peoples  of  South  and 
Central  America,  Mexico  and  the  southwestern  regions 
of  the  United  States.  The  pottery  of  these  countries 
is  particularly  abundant  and  interesting.  As  Peru, 
Central  America  and  Mexico  were  the  seats  of  a  highly 
developed  civilization  centuries  before  the  Spanish  con- 
quest, the  art  of  those  ages  has  no  place  in  a  discussion 
of  primitive  and  savage  ornament.  While  the  begin- 
nings have  been  made  in  the  working  out  of  the  Mayan 
and  Aztec  chronologies,  we  must  await  the  decipherment 
of  their  written  records  before  we  can  write  the  history 
and  chronology  of  the  Peruvian,  Mexican  and  Central 
American  art  of  antiquity,  many  of  whose  monuments 
have  long  been  known,  and  others  more  recently  discov- 
ered by  the  Yale  expeditions  under  Professor  Bingham. 
Until  these  problems  have  been  worked  out  it  will  be 
impossible  to  determine  the  historical  relation  of  such 
advanced  decorative  art  as  is  shown  in  Plate  II,  2,  3 
and  7,  to  the  more  modern  pottery  shown  on  the  same 
plate. 

Both  the  Mexican  and  the  Zuni  and  Pueblo  pot- 
tery show  great  fondness  for  the  spiral  (Figs.  31,  32: 

27 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

Plate  II,  8,  11,  13) .  According  to  W.  H.  Holmes  this 
is  due  to  the  derivation  of  all  American  pottery  from 
primitive  processes  of  building  up  the  vessel  with  suc- 
cessive spiral  coils  of  clay  "rope,"  which  process  in  turn 
is  derived  from  coiled  basketry  (see  Plate  II,  12,  a 
Washoe  basket-bowl) .  This  theory  is  borne  out  by  the 

occurrence  of  many 
basketry  patterns  in 
Bolivian  and  other  pot- 
tery. But  the  Peruvian 
spirals  in  Plate  II,  14, 
may  be  derived  from 
the  coiled  snake  (II, 
16).  The  spiral  is 
common  in  Pueblo 
pottery;  Fig.  31  a 
shows  an  example, 

FIG.  31.    a,  PUEBLO  JAR;  b,  DETAIL  FROM  . 

PLATE   II,  8;   c,   PREHISTORIC  JAR  FROM    which  CUl'lOUSly  rCSCm- 

bles  an  ancient  j  ar  ( re- 
versed) from  Budmer  in  Bosnia,  illustrated  in  Hoerner's 
"Urgeschichte."  The  spiral  b  is  an  enlarged  detail  from 
the  jar  in  Plate  II,  8.  In  the  same  plate  the  illustra- 
tions 5  and  8  offer  curious  analogies  to  early  Greek 
pottery-ornamentation.  Such  resemblances,  probably 
wholly  fortuitous,  have  given  rise  to  many  specula- 
tions as  to  the  origin  of  the  ancient  American  civiliza- 
tions.3 

The  modern  American  Indians,  especially  those  of  the 

3  All  of  the  illustrations  in  Plate  II  are  from  sketches  made  in  the  Ameri- 
can Museum  of  Natural  History  in  New  York,  which  possesses  a  superb 
collection,  in  its  Anthropological  section,  of  examples  of  primitive  art,  both 
American  and  foreign. 

28 


PRIMITIVE  AND  SAVAGE  ORNAMENT 

Southwest,  are  clever  potters  and  particularly  skilful 
in  basketry.  The  blankets,  baskets  and  beadwork  of 
many  other  Indian  tribes  are  rich  in  decorative  sugges- 
tion, and  will  be  increasingly  val- 
ued as  these  arts  tend  to  disap- 
pear with  advancing  civilization. 
The  examples  shown  in  these 
figures  and  plates  can  by  no 
means  adequately  illustrate  the 
richness  and  variety  of  savage 
and  primitive  ornament;  they 
can  only  suggest  its  general 
character.  Every  tribe  has  its 
own  special  products  and  pat- 
terns; to  some  extent  they  FlG-  ^  MEXICAK  JAB. 
mingle  and  overlap  through  commerce  and  migration. 
They  seem  to  have  been  but  little  modified  in  style  by 
the  contact  of  civilization,  though  this  contact  is  apt  to 
result  in  the  disappearance  of  the  native  art  and  the 
substitution  of  manufactured  foreign  products. 

Summary  of  Characteristics. 

The  main  characteristics  of  savage  art  may  be  briefly 
summarized  as  follows: 

I.  Geometric  ideals  control  generally  both  the  distri- 
bution and  details  of  the  decoration. 

II.  Natural  forms  are  invariably  of  magical  signifi- 
cance.    They    converge    towards    the    technomorphic 
treatment  because  the  savage  cares  nothing  for  accuracy 
of  representation,  provided  the  type  is  recognizable ;  and 

29 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

exaggeration  and  caricature  resulting  from  the  influ- 
ence of  materials  and  tools  do  not  destroy  the  type.  The 
technomorphic  geometrization  of  details  is  a  natural  re- 
sult of  the  processes  of  their  production. 

III.  Of    many    motives    it    cannot    be    determined 
whether  the  origin  is  animistic  or  technomorphic.     Na- 
tive identifications  and  explanations  of  form  are  by  no 
means  always  trustworthy. 

IV.  The  zigzag,  quadrilateral,  fret  and  spiral  ap- 
pear in  nearly  all  savage  styles,  though  the  coil  and 
spiral  are  wanting  in  certain  defined  districts  in  the 
South  Seas. 

V.  Savage  ornament  is  almost  wholly  surface  orna- 
ment, in  which  general  effect  is  the  chief  concern  and  is 
produced  by  a  disposition  of  parts  almost  always  judi- 
cious and  artistic.     It  is  usually  composed  of  minute 
motives,  more  or  less  crowded.     The  higher  qualities  of 
grace,  refined  curvature  and  rhythmic  movement,  and 
highly  organized  and  complex  composition,  are  gener- 
ally wanting.     In  short,  the  pursuit  of  an  unattained 
ideal  and  the  progress  that  results  from  it,  do  not  ap- 
pear in  savage  art,  which  remains  content  with  its  past 
which  it  reproduces  with  variations  but  without  con- 
sistent advance. 

Books  Recommended. 

As  before,  the  general  collections  of  Dolmetsch,  Glazier, 
Owen  Jones,  Racinet  and  Speltz. — Also,  H.  BAI/FOUR:  The 
Evolution  of  Decorative  Art  (London,  1893). — A.  C.  HADDON: 
Evolution  in  Art  (especially  for  Polynesian  art:  London, 
1895).— J.  RANKE:  Anfdnge  der  Kunst  (Berlin,  1879).— H. 
STOLPE:  Evolution  in  the  Ornamental  Art  of  Savage  Peoples 

30 


PRIMITIVE  AND  SAVAGE  ORNAMENT 

(Trans.  Rochdale  Literary  and  Scientific  Society,  1891);  Stu- 
dier  i  americansk  Ornamentik  (Stockholm,  1896). — E.  B.  TY- 
L.OR:  Primitive  Culture  (London). — Consult  also  W.  H. 
HOLMES:  Origin  and  Development  of  Form  and  Ornament  m 
Ceramic  Art  in  Fourth  Annual  Report,  Bureau  of  Ethnology 
(Washington,  1886). 


31 


CHAPTER  III 

EGYPTIAN   ORNAMENT 

"Egypt  is  the  oldest  daughter  of  civilization" ; 1  "a 
lighthouse  in  the  profound  darkness  of  remote  an- 
tiquity." 2 

Land  and  People. 

The  valley  of  the  Nile  was  the  birthplace  of  historic 
civilization,  so  far,  at  least,  as  extant  evidence  can  de- 
termine it.  The  history  of  Chaldea  carries  us  back,  it 
is  true,  six  or  seven  thousand  years,  but  the  oldest  monu- 
ments of  Egypt  point  to  a  long  precedent  development, 
the  beginnings  of  which  are  lost  in  the  mists  of  antiquity. 
It  is,  however,  outside  of  our  purpose  to  study  this  twi- 
light age  of  Egyptian  art.  Of  the  thirty  dynasties 
enumerated  by  Manetho,  the  first  reigned  in  Memphis  in 
Lower  Egypt  at  a  date  variously  estimated  at  from  3600 
to  4500  years  B.C.,  over  a  well  organized  kingdom 
possessed  of  cities,  a  priesthood,  established  grades  of 
society,  and  other  features  of  a  developed  civilization. 
Hemmed  in  between  the  wall-like  cliffs  of  the  Nile  val- 
ley, this  kingdom  flourished  for  some  thousands  of  years 
the  one  civilized  nation  in  a  vast  world  of  barbarous 
nations,  developing  unaided  her  own  arts  and  supported 

i  Perrot  &  Chipiez,  "History  of  Ancient  Art";  vol.  I,  page  1. 
*  R£nan,  quoted  by  Perrot  &  Chipiez ;  ibid.,  page  19. 

32 


EGYPTIAN  ORNAMENT 


by  the  inexhaustible  fertility  of  the  Nile  mud.  Herodo- 
tus rightly  called  Egypt  "the  gift  of  the  Nile,"  which 
became  to  the  Egyptians  a  source  of  endless  symbols  and 
cosmic-religious  ideas. 
Within  this  valley  the 
Egyptians  were  long 
untouched  by  foreign 
influences,  and  the  ap- 
parent changelessness 
of  Egyptian  art  is  one 
of  its  most  striking 
characteristics. 

The  government  of 
Egypt  was  an  autoc- 
racy, and  society  was 
divided  into  castes, 
with  the  priest-caste 
at  its  head.  To  this 
caste  belonged  the 
king,  who  was  deified 
after  death.  The  re- 
ligion, grossly  idola- 
trous in  its  lowest  pop- 
ular form,  and  polytheistic  in  its  highest  phases  as  un- 
derstood by  the  educated  priest-caste,  possessed  many 
lofty  spiritual  conceptions  underlying  its  externally 
complex  mythology.  Particularly  important  were  its 
solar  deities  Amen  or  Ra,  identified  with  the  sun; 
Osiris  and  his  sister-spouse  Isis  or  Hathor,  and  Horus 
their  son.  The  ideas  of  death  and  immortality  were  con- 
spicuous, making  sepulchral  art  the  most  important 

33 


FIG.  33. 


DETAIL  OF  SARCOPHAGUS  OF 
MENKAUBA. 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

branch  of  design  next  to  temple  architecture.  Primitive 
fetish-conceptions  never  wholly  disappeared;  Maspero 
declared  that  "every  Egyptian  ornament  was  a  talis- 
man," and  symbolism  characterized  every  detail  of 
decorative  art.  The  tombs,  designed  to  be  inviolable  so 
far  as  the  intention  of  their  designers  was  concerned, 
and  hermetically  sealed  against  the  entrance  of  the  liv- 
ing, were  internally  decorated  with  -pictures  of  scenes, 
objects  and  pursuits  which,  it  was  believed,  would  be- 
come realities  to  the  Ka,  the  shadowy  "double"  or  half- 
spirit  of  the  deceased,  who  could  thus  enjoy  the  pleasures 
of  feasting  and  the  chase  while  imprisoned  in  the  tomb, 
awaiting  final  release  by  the  judgment  of  Osiris  and  his 
forty  assessors.  It  is  from  these  tombs  and  from  the 
sarcophagi  (Fig.  33)  and  mummy-cases  found  in  them 
that  a  large  part  of  our  knowledge  of  Egyptian  life  and 
decorative  art  have  been  derived. 

Influence  of  Climate. 

Except  during  the  short  rainy  season  the  Egyptian 
sky  is  cloudless,  the  sun  intensely  brilliant.  Mists,  half- 
lights,  soft  gray  tones  and  delicate  tints  such  as  northern 
lands  and  artists  know  and  love,  are  here  unknown.  In 
the  blazing  sun  and  black  shadows  delicate  relief  and 
subtle  modulations  of  surface  would  be  lost.  Hence 
strong  and  bold  relief  are  necessary  out  of  doors :  while 
both  there  and  in  the  dim  interiors  color  is  essential  for 
decorative  effectiveness.  Egyptian  ornament  is  pre- 
eminently an  ornament  of  color.  The  dryness  of  the 
air  and  the  absence  of  frost  result  in  a  permanence  which 
cannot  be  secured  in  other  climates.  Wood  and  cloth 

34 


EGYPTIAN  ORNAMENT 

seem  in  Egypt  as  imperishable  as  stone  and  bronze. 
Hence  an  influence  towards  slowness  of  change,  towards 
permanence  both  of  types  and  details,  which  exists  no- 
where else. 

Materials. 

There  is  almost  no  timber  in  Egypt,  and  where  stone 
was  lacking,  or  was  unsuitable  or  too  costly,  mud  or 
clay  served  as  the  building  material,  often  with  a  frame- 
work of  reeds  or  stiff  papyrus-stalks  bound  together  to 
form  posts  and  beams.  The  palm  was  the  principal  tree, 
with  the  sycamore  for  occasional  use  in  cabinet-work. 
The  painted  representations  of  framed  woodwork  al- 
ways show  long  and  narrow  panels,  such  as  could  be 
framed  with  long  thin  pieces  from  the  palm-trunk 
(Fig.  33).  Marvelous  was  the  decorative  art  which 
grew  up  under  these  limitations.  Pottery,  glass,  enamel 
and  metal-work  in  copper,  bronze  and  gold  were  all  O 
known  to  the  Egyptians  from  an  early  age,  and  weav- 
ing of  "fine  twined  linen,"  embroidery  and  the  tanning 
of  leather  were  also  practised. 

Historic  Periods. 

Without  going  into  details,  we  may  divide  the  history 
of  Egyptian  art  into  six  periods.  I,  The  Prehistoric 
Age.  II,  the  Old  or  First  Empire,  comprising  the  first 
ten  dynasties ;  this  is  the  age  of  the  Great  Pyramids  and 
of  the  earliest  tombs,  from  3400  B.C.  3  to  2160  B.C.  Ill, 
The  Middle  or  First  Theban  Empire,  two  dynasties, 

s  These  dates  are  those  of  Breasted.     Some  other  authorities  assign  much 
earlier  dates  to  the  Old  Empire. 

35 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 


2160  to  1788  B.C.  IV,  The  New  or  Second  Theban 
Empire,  the  18th-20th  dynasties  inclusive,  1588-1150 
B.C.  This  is  the  great  age  of  Egyptian  history,  the  most 
splendid  in  its  temples  and  tombs,  as  well  as  in  war 
and  conquest.  It  followed  a  period  of  two  centuries  of 
artistic  sterility  under  five  foreign  dynasties  called  the 
Hyksos  or  Shepherd  Kings.  V,  the  Saitic  and  Persian 
Period,  comprising  the  dynasties  21  to  26  inclusive,  and 
the  Persian  rule  which  began  in  525  B.C.:  from  1150  to 
324  B.C.  VI,  the  Revival  or  Ptolemaic  Period,  under 
the  Macedonian  Ptolemies  and  the  Roman  dominion: 
324  B.C.  to  330  A.D.  The  first  half  of  this  period  was 
one  of  revived  artistic  activity  after  a  long  decline. 


Prehistoric  Ornament. 


FIG.  34.     PREHISTORIC  SLATE  PA- 
LETTE IN  THE  LOUVBE. 


It  is  only  within  recent 
years  that  the  pre-Pharaonic 
art  of  Egypt  has  become 
known  by  a  sufficient  number 
of  examples  to  permit  of 
assigning  any  dates  or  se- 
quences of  style.  Discoveries 
at  Koptos,  Nagada  and  Aby- 
dos  since  1893  have  unearth- 
ed the  products  of  long  ages 
before  the  first  dynasty- 
crude  painted  statuettes  of 
earthenware,  ivory  pins  and 
combs,  spoons  and  rings,  flint 
knives  with  ivory  gold- 
plated  handles,  vases  of  pot- 

36 


tery  and  slate  palettes  or  ink-mixers  (Fig.  34).  In 
none  of  these  is  there  evidence  of  a  developed  decorative 
style,  zigzags  and  a  few  crude  patterns  derived  from 
basketry  being  almost  the  only  pure  ornaments.  There 
is,  however,  considerable  imitation  of  Nature,  more  and 
more  realistic  and  correct  as  one  approaches  historic 
times.  Religion  and  magic  account  for  much  of  this 
naturalism.  The  slate  palette  from  the  Louvre  shown 
in  Fig.  34  is  in  its  motive  so  like  many  "Sacred  Tree" 
compositions  from  Assyria  in  which  a  tree  is  flanked  by 
erect  monsters  or  human  figures,  that  some  authorities 
refer  it  to  prehistoric  Chaldean  influence.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  entire  Asiatic  series  of  figures  of  beasts 
facing  a  central  tree  or  shaft  may  have  originated  in 
Egypt.  On  the  whole  these  finds  throw  little  light  on 
the  origins  and  early  development  of  the  historic  orna- 
ment of  Egypt. 

Historic  Ornament;  General  Survey. 

The  historic  ornament  of  Egypt  may  be  dated  as  ex- 
tending from  about  3500  B.C.,  the  date  of  the  earliest 
examples  in  the  collections,  down  to  the  Christian  era. 
From  the  Old  Empire  the  remains  are  almost  wholly 
of  sepulchral  and  industrial  art — scarabs  (Fig.  53), 
mummy-cases,  jewelry,  furniture  and  tomb  decorations. 
The  Middle  Empire  has  bequeathed  us  a  few  examples 
of  its  architecture,  but  the  great  architectural  age  is  that 
of  the  New  Empire,  though  the  Ptolemaic  is  also  rich 
in  this  field.  The  Middle  and  New  Empire  periods 
have  also  left  us  many  examples  of  sepulchral  art.  This 
entire  body  of  decorative  art,  covering  a  period  of  be- 

37 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

tween  three  and  four  thousand  years,  shows  an  ex- 
traordinary continuity  and  uniformity  of  character  and 
spirit,  in  spite  of  the  progress  observable  when  it  is 
closely  studied.  Egyptian  art  is  marked  by  a  highly 
developed  decorative  sense  which  rarely  fails  to  employ 
both  form  and  color  in  the  most  effective  and  appropri- 
ate manner.  The  influence  of  symbolism  and  of  sur- 
viving traditions  of  magic  is  everywhere  observable, 
though  the  symbolic  significance  of  the  forms  used  was 
probably  by  no  means  always  a  controlling  influence  in 
the  design.  In  many  cases  it  may  not  have  been  at  all 
consciously  present  in  the  mind  of  the  designer. 

Sources  and  Motives. 

The  Egyptians  employed  both  geometric  and  natural 
forms,  the  latter  always  more  or  less  conventionalized. 
The  geometric  motives  were  no  doubt  chiefly  of  technic 
origin,  the  natural  forms  magical  or  symbolic.     The  con- 
ventionalizing tendency  was   always   strong,   even  in 
purely  pictorial  and  representative  paint- 
ing and  sculpture,  largely  from  the  influ- 
ence of  heiratic  formulae  and  traditions  in 
sepulchral    and    temple     decoration.     In 
ornament  there  is  rarely  any  attempt  to 
picture  natural  objects  realistically.    Thus 
the  lotus  (Figure  36,  page  47),  which  ap- 
pears in  Nature  as  at  a,  is  usually  depicted        FIG.  35. 
in  side-elevation,  greatly  simplified,  as  at  &      A  jjJ'J. OF 
and  c;  and  a  dish  of  fruit  is  shown  partly 
in  plan  and  partly  in  elevation,  the  two  combined  in  one 
representation  (Fig.  35).     Human  figures  are  drawn 

38 


EGYPTIAN  ORNAMENT 

with  the  head  in  profile,  the  shoulders  in  front  view,  and 
the  legs  and  feet  in  side  view,  both  feet  planted  squarely 
on  the  ground,  one  behind  the  other. 

Besides  the  classes  of  ornament  above  described,  there 
is  the  important  category  of  architectural  ornament. 
This  consists  largely  of  conventionalized  Nature-forms, 
with  only  a  comparatively  limited  list  of  really  structural 
motives. 

General  Character. 

Egyptian  ornament  is  characterized  by  a  certain 
rigidity  and  formality  of  character,  which  permitted  of 
only  a  very  slow  and  gradual  evolution ;  there  is  no  such 
marked  change  of  style,  previous  at  least  to  the  Ptole- 
maic age,  as  marks  for  instance  the  development  of 
Greek  or  of  Gothic  ornament.  But  there  is  an  ex- 
traordinary variety  of  detail  in  the  treatment  of  a  some- 
what limited  stock  of  fundamental  motives.  It  is  pre- 
dominantly an  art  of  surface-decoration  by  color:  the 
range  of  structural  and  architectural  forms  is  very 
narrow.  Color  was  largely  depended  upon  for  the 
decoration  of  buildings  as  well  as  of  movable  objects, 
and  color  was  used  with  admirable  judgment  for  decora- 
tive effects.  The  colors  chiefly  used  were  red,  yellow, 
blue  and  green,  with  black  and  white  occasionally  as 
foils;  these  colors  are  seldom  the  pure  colors  of  the 
spectrum  or  their  nearest  pigment  analogies,  but  "re- 
duced" tones  or  shades,  the  red  verging  towards  the  red- 
brown;  the  yellow  a  warm  tone  such  as  is  produced  by 
tinging  yellow  ochre  with  burnt-sienna;  the  blue  com- 
monly of  a  dark  shade,  the  green  ranging  from  a  sap- 

39 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

green  to  a  dark  olive.  There  are  of  course  exceptions, 
especially  in  enamels  and  glass,  but  they  only  emphasize 
the  prevailing  sobriety  and  richness  of  the  color  in  other 
works.  The  use  of  gold  in  decoration  was  very  sparing. 

• 

Nature  Forms. 

Both  plant  and  animal  forms  were  used  in  Egyptian 
ornament.  The  animal  forms — chiefly  the  vulture  or 
hawk,  and  the  urasus  or  cobra,  together  with  wings 
and  feathers — were  almost  invariably  religious  or  sym- 
bolic. So  also  was  probably  the  lotus  and  perhaps  also 
the  papyrus  among  vegetable  forms ;  most  of  the  other 
plants  and  flowers  that  occur  seem  to  have  been  used 
for  purely  decorative  reasons. 

The  Lotus. 

This  has  been  called  the  sacred  flower  4  of  Egypt 
(Figure  36)  ;  it  was  the  largest  and  most  beautiful  of 
flowers  known  to  that  land,  and  figured  prominently  in 
both  royal  and  religious  ceremonies.  As  a  product  of 
the  life-giving,  wealth-bestowing  Nile  it  was  symbolic 
both  of  that  river  and  of  the  solar  divinities  which  ruled 
the  river's  inundations  and  imparted  to  it  its  fertility 
and  life-renewing  powers.  It  is  shown  in  the  hands  of 
kings  and  gods ;  laid  as  an  offering  on  altars  and  tied  to 
the  tops  of  posts  and  columns.  It  figures  in  the  capitals 
of  columns  and  is  made  the  basis  of  endlessly  varied 
borders  and  all-over  patterns.  Professor  Goodyear  in 

*  Flinders   Petrie,  however,   denies  its   sacred   and   symbolic   significance 
("Egyptian  Decorative  Art,"  page  106). 

40 


EGYPTIAN  ORNAMENT 

his  "Grammar  of  the  Lotus"  has  endeavored  to  prove 
that  all  Egyptian  ornament  is  based  on  the  lotus  and  that 
since  all  classic  ornament  can  be  traced  back  ultimately 
to  Egypt,  and  most  later  styles  to  the  classic,  the  lotus 
must  be  considered  to  be  the  parent  of  nearly  all  historic 
ornament.  This  is  surely  carrying  the  thesis  too  far, 
but  it  is  undeniable  that  a  very  considerable  part  of 
Egyptian  ornament  is  of  lotus  origin,  while  many  forms 
not  lotuses  at  all,  converged  towards  the  lotus  type,  so 
that  the  lotus  influence  is  traceable  far  beyond  the  area 
of  actual  lotus  derivations. 

The  Egyptian  lotuses  used  in  decoration  were  the 
nymphcea  lotus  and  the  nymphcea  cerulcea — respec- 
tively the  white  and  blue  lotus.  The  rose  lotus  (nelum- 
bium)  was  probably  not  known  till  a  late  date.  The 
Nile  lotus  is  a  large  water-lily,  with  four  green  sepals 
and  a  corolla  of  white  or  blue  petals  surrounding  the 
yellow  central  group  of  stamens  and  pistils  (Figure 
36,  a).  It  was  represented  usually  in  side-elevation, 
showing  three  sepals  and  usually  six  petals.  The  bud 
was  shown  with  only  two  sepals  visible,  and  sometimes 
with  no  division  of  sepals  at  all.  The  outline  of  the 
open  flower  was  either  trumpet-shaped,  bell-shaped  or 
rectilinear.  A  derived  form  was  the  trilobe,  in  which 
the  petals  were  omitted,  and  the  two  lateral  sepals  curled 
over  into  volutes;  but  by  a  decorative  inconsistency,  a 
second  set  of  sepals  frequently  adorned  the  trilobe 
(Fig.  37,  cfe). 

As  a  border  ornament,  the  lotus  was  alternated  with 
the  bud,  usually  in  a  pendant  position,  perhaps  in  imi- 

41 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

tation  of,  or  convergence  towards,  fringes  of  tassels; 
and  with  these  alternating  forms  were  combined  round 
dots,  loops  and  other  details  whose  meaning  is  not  ob- 
vious (Figure  38).  In  late  work  the  lotus-bud  is  often 
replaced  by  bunches  of  grapes  or  by  nondescript  forms 
generally  recalling  the  oval  outline  of  the  bud  ( Figures 
38,  39). 

The  lotus  was  also  frequently  used  as  an  isolated 


e 

FIG.  37.    LOTUS  FORMS;  a,  FULL  FLOWER;  b-e,  TRILOBE  FORMS. 

motive,  as  on  paddles,  vases  and  other  objects;  and  as 
a  terminal  ornament,  e.g.,  to  adorn  the  prow  or  stern 
of  a  boat  (Figure  36,  c),  or  to  form  the  capital  of  a 
column  (Plate  III,  10,  19).  Many  writers  consider 
Egyptian  rosettes  in  general  to  be  representations  in 
plan  of  the  open  lotus,  or  even  of  the  seed  vessel  of  the 
flower,  but  Flinders-Petrie  has  shown 5  that  many 
rosettes  are  plainly  representations  of  other  flowers,  and 
that  others  are  probably  of  technic  origin.  Some 
rosettes  are,  however,  unmistakably  lotus  rosettes 
(Figure  40,  page  47) . 

The  lotus  figures  in  many  all-over  patterns  in  associa- 
tion with  the  spiral  (Figure  41,  page  47).  The  archi- 
tectural uses  of  the  lotus  are  discussed  later. 

6  "Egyptian  Decorative  Art,"  page  58. 

42 


EGYPTIAN  ORNAMENT 


FIG.  42.    THE  PAPYRUS 
IN  NATURE. 


Other  Plant  Forms. 

The  papyrus  (Fig.  42)  is  the  most  important  of 
these.  Its  straight,  stiff  triangular 
stem  with  four  root-leaves  wrapping 
its  slightly  swelling  base,  is  imitated 
in  the  clustered  shafts  of  many  col- 
umns (Plate  III,  11),  and  painted 
as  a  decoration  on  walls  and  on  bell- 
capitals,  often  alternating  with  con- 
ventional lotuses  (Figures  43,  45, 
Fig.  46 ) .  The  stem  bears  a  bunch  of 
tiny  flowers,  forming  with  their 
stems  a  group  of  green  filaments 
with  reddish  tops,  growing  out  of  a  calyx  of  four  leaves 

or  bracts.  These  supply  the 
suggestion  for  many  bell-shaped 
forms  in  ornament  (Figure 
47),  including  the  great  cam- 
paniform  capitals  of  huge  col- 
umns like  those  of  the  Karnak 
hypostyle  hall  (Figure  &3; 
Plate  III,  10 ).6 

The  daisy,  convolvulus, 
grapes,  and  thistle  occur  in 
ornament;  also  other  plant  forms  not  always  recogniz- 
able. Many  rosette  and  leaf  forms  are  probably  mere 
conventional  ornament  types,  not  intended  to  portray 
particular  plants.  The  spiked  ornament  of  Figure  44 

« In  the  "Grammar  of  the  Lotus,"  Prof.  Goodyear  claims  as  lotus-forms  a 
host  of  ornament  motives  and  pictorial  representations  plainly  derived  from 
the  papyrus.  There  are,  it  is  true,  many  forms  in  which,  by  convergence,  the 
two  types  are  blended  in  one. 

43 


Fro.    46.     CAMPANIFORM    CAP- 
ITAL, KAKNAK. 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

is  identified  by  Flinders-Petrie  as  well  as  Goodyear,  as 
a  lotus  with  the  central  sepal  exaggerated.  This  does 
not  seem  convincing:  it  is  too  persistent  and  uniform 
a  motive  in  late  art,  and  too  unlike  the  lotus  to  warrant 
this  explanation  without  strong  proof,  and  may  repre- 
sent some  aquatic  plant  not  now  existent  in  the  Nile 
valley.  The  palm  appears  in  capitals  during  and  after 
the  XVIIIth  dynasty,  and  is  frequent  in  Ptolemaic  and 
Roman  work  (Fig.  64,  c,  page  50;  Plate  III,  17). 

Animal  Forms. 

The  vulture,  with  widespread  wings,  symbolizing  pro- 
tection and  maternal  care,  is  a  frequent  and  a  splendid 
decoration  of  temple  ceilings,  and  appears  in  many 
other  applications  (Figure  57;  Plate  III,  20,  23) .  The 
wings  alone,  with  the  sun-disk  significant  of  Ra,  are 
still  more  frequent,  especially  over  the  gateways  or 
entrances  of  temples  (Figure  58).  The  urceus  or 
cobra  is  a  symbol  of  death,  hence  of  the  royal  power  of 
life  and  death,  and  hence  of  royalty  itself.  It  decorates 
the  winged  disk  (Figure  58),  the  royal  head-dress,  and 
the  cornices  of  certain  buildings;  especially  in  the 
Ptolemaic  age,  of  the  front  screen- walls  of  the  hypostyle 
halls  (Figure  59).  The  scarabceus  or 
beetle  is  rarely  a  purely  ornamental  mo- 
tive, but  appears  isolated  on  mummy- 
cases  and  elsewhere,  as  a  symbol  of  crea- 
tion and  life,  and  was  the  commonest  of 
amulets  (Fig.  53).  It  is  occasionally 
FIG.  53.  Scara-  found  in  late  all-overs,  as  in  Plate  III  A. 
The  head  of  Hathor  was  used  as  a  sym- 

44 


bceus    Amulet 
(Reverse). 


61.  ZIGZAGS  ;  b, 
IMBRICATIONS;  c,  CHEV- 
RONS. 


EGYPTIAN  ORNAMENT 

bolic  decoration  on  columns,  especially  in  the  Ptolemaic 
age  (Plate  III,  9) .  The  sphinx,  a  symbolic  compound 
of  lion's  body  with  human  head  (an- 
drosphinx)  or  a  sculptured  ram 
(criosphinx) ,  was  employed  to  line 
the  dromos  or  avenue  leading  to  a 
temple,  and  is  occasionally  found 
executed  in  bronze,  basalt  or  diorite, 
of  small  size,  perhaps  as  an  amulet. 
But  the  sphinx  belongs  rather  to 
sculpture  than  to  ornament.  Feath- 
ers appear  not  only  in  representa-  FIG 
tions  of  great  fans  or  royal  insignia, 
but  in  the  form  of  scale-like  ornament 
or  imbrications  (Fig.  61,  b;  Plate  III,  21,  22),  which 
may  be  derived  from  the  actual  use  of  feathers  in  cloth- 
ing. Figure  60  may  represent  fans,  or  highly  conven- 
tional lotus  forms. 

Conventional  or  Geometric  Motives. 

These  are  of  the  greatest  variety,  and  are  used  with 
consummate  skill,  sometimes  alone,  very  often  in  com- 
bination with  flower-forms,  especially  the  lotus.  Fig. 
61  a  illustrates  one  of  many  effective  examples  of  the 
decorative  use  of  simple  straight  lines.  The  zigzag 
occurs  with  great  frequency;  it  is  used  often  to  repre- 
sent water  on  the  Nile,  but  may  not  always  have  had  this 
significance.  Associated  with  the  zigzag  is  the  chevron 
(Fig.  61,  c).  Opposed  zigzags  produce  lozenges  or 
diamonds,  and  occur  in  simple  all-over  patterns  (Figure 
50).  It  is  quite  likely  that  all  these  are  primarily  of 

45 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

technic  origin,  from  basketwork  and  weaving.  Plaids 
and  check-patterns  are  undoubtedly  technomorphs.  In 
the  tombs  of  Ti  and  of  Ptah  Hotep  at  Sakkarah,  mat- 
tings of  plaited  rushes  or  straw  are  plainly  represented 
as  filling  the  panels  of  the  walls,  with  patterns  of  great 
variety  in  checks,  quarries  and  zigzags. 

The  circle  was  the  basis  of  a  great  number  of  patterns, 
and  intersecting  circles  forming  four-petaled  flowers  or 
stars  are  very  common  (Figure  52;  Plate  III,  16,  18). 
Rosettes  are  found  in  unlimited  variety.  It  is  impos- 
sible to  affirm  in  every  case  whether  they  are  purely 
geometric  and  conventional,  or  floral,  or  technomor- 
phic:  nor  is  their  origin  important  except  as  affecting 
theories  of  esthetics  and  psychology.  In  many  designs 
they  are  clearly  floral:  a  beautiful  rosette  is  formed  by 
four  spreading  lotuses  alternating  with  lotus  buds  about 
a  common  center  (Figure  40). 

The  spiral,  though  not  as  important  in  Egyptian 
ornament  as  later  it  became  in  Greek  art,  was  much  used 
both  in  linear  and  all-over  patterns.  Its  earliest  occur- 
rence is  on  scarabs  or  seals  of  the  very  early  dynasties, 
where  it  appears  merely  as  a  decorative  space-filler 
(Fig.  53)  or  border.  It  is  not  frequent  on  large  ob- 
jects until  the  XVIIIth  dynasty;  it  is  one  of  the  com- 
monest decorative  motives  thenceforward  until  the 
Decline.  It  appears  occasionally  as  a  current  scroll  or 
"Greek  wave"  (Figure  51).  Its  most  frequent  use 
is  in  all-over  patterns  on  textiles  (or  painted  represen- 
tations of  them) ,  and  on  ceilings  in  the  tombs.  Quarries 
are  formed  by  four  (rarely  three)  lines  winding  spirally 
about  each  of  a  series  of  dots  arranged  in  diagonally 

46 


6 
Fig.36         C 

aNduraLb.cCo\/e,niionaIheJ 


FigJlLduaSpirah          FigJS.  Belt  Capital  .with 
•    fopyrus  Decoration 


?    r&rr.  ^ 

Conventional  Rjfyms 


Fiq.57.Fbinked  Vulture 


Fig-62.  "Typical  Cornke 


Winged DiskorGhbe. 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

intersecting  rows.  The  angles  are  often  filled  with 
lotus-blossoms,  and  the  quadrilateral  spaces  with  ro- 
settes, lozenges  or  other  motives  (Figures  41,  48;  Plate 
III,  7,  8) .  A  variant  pattern  is  formed  by  series  of  C- 
shaped  links  or  volutes  in  horizontal  and  vertical  pairs. 
Another  variant  is  seen  in  patterns  of  opposed  vertical 
rows  of  S-scrolls  forming  lyre-shaped  spaces  as  in 
Figure  41  and  Plate  III,  8. 

Fret  patterns  are  the  angular  or  rectilinear  counter- 
parts of  spiral  patterns,  though  the  quadruple  con- 
vergence on  the  points  of  a  mesh  is  rare  (Figure  49, 
which  is  the  counterpart  of  Figure  48).  The  fret  is 
but  rarely  met  with  as  a  border-pattern.  It  will  be 
noted  that  the  pattern  in  Figure  49  is  formed  by  two 
intersecting  line-motives,  and  that  it  produces  a  series 
of  "swastikas."  There  is  no  evidence,  however,  that  the 
swastika,  as  a  separate  motive  or  as  a  symbol  was  used 
or  even  known  in  Egypt.  Its  occurrence  in  these  pat- 
terns is  purely  fortuitous  (Plate  III,  12,  14). 

The  Palmette. 

This  is  the  name  given  to  an  ornament  which  occurs 
in  Egyptian,  Assyrian,  Phenician,  Cypriote  and  Greek 
art,  in  almost  countless  variations,  and  of  which  the 
Greek  anthemion  is  the  direct  derivative.  It  consists 
(Figures  54,  55,  56)  of  a  group  of  diverging  leaves  or 
petals  springing  from  between  two  spirals;  it  is  pre- 
dominantly used  as  an  isolated  or  terminal  motive  in 
Egyptian  art.  An  early  example  is  a  gold  jewel  from 
the  IVth  dynasty  (Figure  55,  a) ;  later  examples  are 
shown  in  Figures  55,  b,  56.  The  origin  and  significance 

48 


EGYPTIAN  ORNAMENT 

of  this  ornament  are  not  fully  determined.  All  author- 
ities agree  that  it  is  a  lotus-motive,  but  how  the  particular 
combination  of  a  species  of  semi-rosette  with  a  trilobe 
lotus  came  about  and  what  it  meant  are  not  wholly  clear. 
One  theory  makes  it  a  half -plan  of  the  flower  above  an 
elevation  of  the  same7  (see  ante,  Fig.  35);  another 
sees  in  it  the  symbol  of  the  rising  sun  or  Horus,  over  the 
lotus  or  Nile.  The  spiked  flower-motive  in  Figure  44 
may  perhaps  be  a  variation  of  the  palmette  rather  than 
of  the  lotus  or  of  an  unknown  aquatic  plant.  It  is  not 
to  be  confounded  with  representations  of  ceremonial 
royal  fans,  though  somewhat  resembling  them.  Pecu- 
liar horn-like  volutes  in  some  examples  (Figure  60)  are 
probably  representations  of  the  third  and  fourth  sepals 
of  the  lotus-calyx.  The  oval  or  semicircular  object 
nesting  between  the  voluted  front  sepals  is  probably  the 
core-body  or  pericarp  of  the  flower  seen  between  its 
sepals;  it  becomes  an  essential  feature  of  all  the  later 
and  derivative  forms  persisting  through  Greek  art  and, 
indeed,  through  all  the  ages  to  our  own. 

Architectural  Forms:  Piers,  Columns  and  Cornices. 

The  architectural  forms  of  Egyptian  ornament  were 
comparatively  few  and  simple.  There  was  no  system 
of  uniform  orders  like  the  Greek  and  Roman;  but  one 
type  of  cornice,  the  cavetto  cornice,  was  universal 
(Figure  62;  Plate  III,  9,  11) .  This  was  usually  orna- 
mented with  vertical  flutings,  perhaps  as  reminiscences 
of  primitive  papyrus-stalk  framing,  and  with  a  torus  at 

7  F.  P.,  op.  cit.,  page  70;  also  Goodyear,  "Grammar  of  the  Lotus,"  pas- 
sim, 

49 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 


FIG.  63.    TYPES  OF  COLUMNS. 


its  base,  plainly  derived  from  a  bundle  of  reeds  bound 
together.  This  torus  was  frequently  carried  down 
the  corners  of  pylons  and  other  enclosing  walls.  A 

winged  disk  invariably 
adorned  the  central 
part  of  the  cornice 
over  all  temple  door- 
ways (Fig.  58). 

Columns  had  shafts 
of  three  types:  the 
circular  or  cylindrical, 
the  clustered,  and  the 
polygonal  or  proto- 
doric  (Plate  III,  10,  11;  Fig.  63,  a,  b,  c).  The  fisrt 
two  tapered  upward  in  most  cases,  and  sometimes  had 
a  slight  swelling  or  convexity  at  the  base  (Fig.  63,  d). 
The  clustered  shafts  consisted  of  four  or  eight  members 
(or  rarely  even  more),  which  were  sometimes  cylindri- 
cal, sometimes  formed  with  an  arris  or  edge  (Fig. 
63,  d).  The  so-called  "proto-doric"  columns  had  from 
eight  to  thirty-two  sides,  flat  or  slightly  concaved;  they 
are  chiefly  found  in  rock-cut  tombs  and  a  few  scanty 
temple-ruins  of  the  Middle  Empire  (Fig.  63,  c). 

The  Capitals  of  columns 
were  of  the  greatest  variety, 
but  divisible  into  a  few  main 
groups:  the  bud  capital, 
single  or  clustered  (Fig.  63, 
a,  b;  Plate  III,  11);  the 
bell-shaped  or  campaniform, 


FIG.  64. 


single    or    compound 
(Fig.  64,  a,  b;  also  Figure  46  and  Figure  43;  Plate 

50 


EGYPTIAN  ORNAMENT 

III,  9,  10) ;  the  palmiform  (Fig.  64,  c;  Plate  III,  17)  ; 
and  the  Hathoric  (Plate  III,  9) .  The  bud-capital  was 
the  most  common;  the  campaniform  appears  chiefly  in 
the  central  aisles  of  hypostyle  halls,  as  at  Karnak  and  the 
Ramesseum ;  the  compound  campaniform,  the  palmiform 
and  the  Hathoric  belong  chiefly  to  the  Ptolemaic  age, 
which  produced  also  various  exceptional  forms  of  which 
those  in  Plate  III,  15  and  19  are  ex- 
amples. The  bell  capital  was  adorned 
with  painted  petals  around  its  lower 
part,  and  with  rows  of  flowers  on  erect 
green  stalks.  These  are  apparently 
survivals  or  elaborations  of  the  green 
filaments  of  the  papyrus-head  from 
which  this  type  of  capital  is  probably 
derived8  (Figures  43,  45,  47;  Fig.  46; 
Plate  III,  10).  Indeed,  many  other 
features  of  the  Egyptian  columns  point 
to  the  influence  of  papyrus  origins. 
Every  shaft,  even  when  cylindrical,  is 
bound  by  five  or  more  bands  at  the  top, 
a  detail  evidently  derived  from  the  bind- 
ing of  clustered  supports  such  as 
bundles  of  papyrus  stalks ;  the  clustered 
shafts  often  have  an  edge  or  arris,  like  the  triangular 
stem  of  the  papyrus;  the  slight  swelling  at  the  base, 
swathed  in  leaves,  with  the  upward  taper,  is  a  marked 
characteristic  of  the  papyrus  stalk  (see  Fig.  42) ;  the 

s  Prof.  Goodyear  in  his  "Grammar  of  the  Lotus"  and  elsewhere  sharply  dis- 
putes this  view,  contending  that  this  capital  is  derived  from  the  seed-vessel 
of  the  rose-lotus.  His  authority  is  weighty,  but  his  arguments  not  convinc- 
ing. See  ante,  page  43,  Note. 

51 


FIG.  65.    OSIRID 
PIER,  LUXOR. 


bound  stalks  of  the  bundle-molding  plainly  point  to  the 
structural  use  of  papyrus  stalks  in  primitive  times ;  and 
the  bell-shaped  cap,  striped  with  green  vertical  lines 
rising  from  a  calyx  of  leaves,  and  with  its  red  lip,  is  the 
appropriate  architectural  interpretation  in  stone  of  the 
spreading  papyrus-head  of  green  filaments  rising  from 
a  pseudo-calyx  of  leaves,  and  bearing  small  reddish  tops 
or  heads.  The  combination  of  all  these  features  is  more 
easily  and  naturally  explained  by  the  papyrus  origin 
than  by  any  other  theory.  But  there  is  probably  con- 
vergence towards  familiar  lotus-types:  it  is  always 
dangerous  to  attempt  any  narrow  and  exclusive  assign- 
ment of  origins  to  decorative  forms. 

The  shafts  of  simple  cylindrical  columns  were  gen- 
erally covered  with  bands  of  incised  and  painted 
hieroglyphics  and  pictures,  serving  both  to  adorn  them 
and  to  give  scale  to  their  simple  masses  (Plate  III,  10) . 

Osirid  Piers. 

Besides  the  columns  there  occur  in  several  temples 
square  or  rectangular  piers,  often  fronted  with  colossal 

sculptured  figures  of  Osirid 
holding  a  scourge  and  a 
"Nile  key"  or  "key  of  life" 
(Fig.  65). 


FIG.  66. 


PAINTED  PECTORAL  ON  A 
MUMMY-CASE. 


Industrial  Arts. 

The  Egyptians  practised 
the  arts  of  the  goldsmith 
and  jeweler;  not  only  have  we  in  our  museums  gold 
jewelry  of  very  great  antiquity — rings,  bracelets,  pen- 

52 


EGYPTIAN  ORNAMENT 

dants,  brooches  and  necklaces  (Figures  55,  a,  56; — but 
we  have  on  mummy-cases  and  in  pictures  representa- 
tions of  necklaces  and  pectorals  of  great 
splendor  (Figure  66) .  In  all  these  the 
lotus,  bud,  and  palmette  are  constantly 
recurring  motives.  The  art  of  enamel- 
ing was  understood  and  practised  with 
skill,  especially  for  amulets.  Glass  was 
known,  was  used  for  vials  and  small  ob- 
jects, and  was  highly  prized.  Small 
objects  like  spoons  and  perfume-boxes 
were  carved  in  wood,  often  in  highly 
artistic  designs  (Fig.  67;  Plate  III, 
25 ) .  Textile  art  was  highly  developed, 
linen  being  the  chief  material.  The 
figured  stuffs,  hangings,  etc.,  have  per- 
ished, but  the  tomb  paintings  show  us 
the  designs  once  employed:  some  of 
these  have  already  been  illustrated 
(Figures  41,  48,  52;  Plate  III,  6-8, 
12-14.  Pottery  and  earthenware  were 
produced  in  large  quantities,  and  were 
articles  of  export,  but  the  product  did  not  compare 
either  in  grace  of  form  or  in  decoration  with  the  later 
ceramic  work  of  the  Greeks.  Enameled  earthenware 
was  used  for  the  finer  bowls,  platters,  etc.,  and  enameled 
tiles  were  early  used  in  architecture,  as  around  a  door 
in  the  stepped  pyramid  of  Sakkarah,  but  apparently  not 
in  buildings  after  the  Hyksos  period.  Amulets  and 
small  ornaments  were  made  of  enameled  earthenware,  of 
cloisonne  enamel  on  metal  (gold  or  copper),  of  bronze, 

53 


FIG.  67.    CARVED 
WOODEN  SPOON. 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

and  of  diorite  and  other  hard  stones.  Of  these  amulets 
the  scarabcei  are  the  most  numerous;  one  side  being 
modeled  to  represent  the  scarabseus  beetle  (an  emblem 
of  life  after  death),  the  other  side,  flat,  having  incised 
hieroglyphs  and  spiral  or  scroll  ornaments. 

Not  much  furniture  has  been  preserved,  but  the  few 
extant  examples,  of  sycamore  wood,  and  the  very  numer- 
ous sarcophagi  and  mummy-wraps  and  cartonnages, 
furnish  almost  countless  examples  of  painted  ornament. 
Carved  spoons  and  perfume  holders  were  often  highly 
elaborate  (Fig.  67;  Plate  III,  25) . 

Books  Recommended: 

FLJNDERS-PETRIE  :  Egyptian  Decorative  Art  (London,  1895). 
— W.  H.  GOODYEAR:  Grammar  of  the  Lotus  (London,  1891). — 
PERROT  and  CHIPIEZ:  Histoire  de  Tart  dans  Vantiquite:  Egypte 
(Paris,  1884)  ;  also  English  edition,  History  of  Ancient  Art  in 
Egypt,  trans.  W.  Armstrong  (New  York,  1885). — PRISSE 
D'AVENNES:  L 'Art  Egyptien  (Paris,  1878). — ROSELLINI: 
/  Monumenti  del  E  git  to  e  delta  Nubia  (Pisa,  1832-1844). 


CHAPTER  IV 

CHALDEA  AND  ASSYRIA 

The  valley  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  rivers  was 
the  cradle  of  a  civilization  second  only  to  that  of  Egypt 
in  antiquity.  Indeed,  it  is  believed  by  some  scholars  to 
reach  as  far  back  as  that  of  the  Nile  Valley,  though  its 
origins  are  buried  in  obscurity.  The  two  civilizations 
early  came  into  contact  with  each  other,  and  there  are 
traces  of  reciprocal  influences  between  them.  The 
material  remains  of  Chaldean  art  are  far  less  rich  and 
important  than  those  of  Egyptian  art,  and  the  most 
important  among  them,  from  the  point  of  view  of  deco- 
rative design,  belong  to  a  period  when  Egyptian  art  was 
already  in  its  decline.  Early  Chaldean  art  lasted  from 
a  date  reaching  back  3000  or  4000  years  B.C.  to  1250  B.C., 
when  the  Assyrian  power  attained  the  ascendancy.  The 
Assyrian  empire  was  overthrown  606  B.C.  by  the  second 
Chaldean  or  Babylonian  empire,  and  this  in  turn  suc- 
cumbed to  the  Persians  525  B.C.  The  most  important 
monumental  art  of  these  three  periods  is  that  of  the 
Sargonidae  of  Assyria,  from  900  to  606  B.C.  Recent 
excavations  by  the  Germans  at  Babylon  have  brought 
to  light  many  remains  of  both  the  earlier  and  later 
Chaldean  empire :  but  our  chief  concern  is  with  the  prod- 
ucts of  the  Assyrian  dominion. 

55 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

Land  and  Materials. 

From  the  high  table-lands  and  hills  of  Northern 
Mesopotamia  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  the  country  is  almost 
flat,  a  vast  alluvial  plain,  abounding  in  clay,  extremely 
fertile  under  irrigation,  but  lacking  both  stone  and 
timber.  All  building  was  consequently  of  brick,  either 
sun-baked  or  kiln-burned,  and  chiefly  the  former. 
Timber  from  the  distant  mountains  or  from  Syria  was 
costly  and  was  used  but  sparingly;  fuel  was  expensive 
and  burned  brick  therefore  also  expensive.  Thin  slabs 
of  alabaster  or  of  limestone  were  the  only  forms  in 
which  stone  could  be  used,  except  in  rare  instances. 
These  limitations  made  all  architectural  art  based  on 
stone  construction  impossible,  and  confined  decorative 
art  within  narrow  limits.  Ceramics  in  the  form  of  bricks 
and  enameled  tiles  and  pottery ;  textiles,  especially  rugs 
and  hangings,  and  bronze  in  small  amounts,  were  the 
principal  media  of  artistic  expression,  although  sculp- 
ture, chiefly  in  the  form  of  carving  in  low  relief  on 
alabaster,  was  also  practised  with  a  skill  which  is  re- 
markable when  one  considers  the  scarcity  and  costliness 
of  stone.  Of  wood  carving  there  are  hardly  any  ex- 
amples. 

Early  Chaldean  Art. 

The  remains  of  decorative  art  from  ancient  Chaldea 
are  not  numerous.  Abundant  cylinders  and  inscribed 
bricks,  ruins  of  temples  and  palaces,  a  few  statues  of 
kings  or  deities  carved  in  stone  obtained  from  abroad, 
some  pottery  and  a  few  objects  in  bronze,  make  up  the 

56 


CHALDEA  AND  ASSYRIA 

bulk  of  the  product  of  the  excavations  carried  on  in 
Niffer  (Nippur)  the  sacred  city,  in  Warka,  Mugheir,  in 
Babylon,  and  in 
other  places  be- 
longing to  this  em- 
pire, 
arts 


The  plastic 
were  appar- 
ently not  in  gen- 
eral highly  devel- 
oped. The  most 
ancient  examples 
of  its  architectural 
ornament  known 
are  the  walls  of 
Warka  (Erech), 
formed  with  ver- 
tical reedings  and 
panels,  and  covered  with  a  simple  mosaic  (Fig.  68) 
formed  of  cones  of  terra  cotta  driven  into  their  sun-dried 
brick  facings.  The  flat  exposed  bases  of  these  cones, 
enameled  in  various  colors,  form  patterns  of  lozenges 
and  zigzags,  apparently  derived  from  familiar  mattting- 
patterns.  Flat  tiles  may  have  been  used  in  other  cases, 
but  they  have  all  perished. 

Assyrian  Ornament:  Origins  and  Motives. 

Assyrian  decoration  depended  largely  on  naturalistic 
representation:  human  figures,  bulls,  lions  and  other 
animals  appear  frequently,  not  merely  in  the  great 
sculptured  pictures  on  the  alabaster  wainscot  of  palace 
halls,  but  in  the  subordinate  decoration  of  buildings  and 

57 


FIG.  68.     WALL-MOSAIC,  WARKA. 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

in  the  ornament  of  minor  objects.  There  was  also  a 
large  group  of  motives  derived  from  Egyptian  art, 
greatly  modified  oftentimes  in  treatment  but  still  recog- 


Fio.  69.     ASSYRIAN  ORXAMENT  MOTIVES. 

nizably  Egyptian.  Another  class  of  motives  are  in 
dispute,  but  two  facts  seem  clear:  first,  that  the  As- 
syrians originated  little  in  the  way  of  decorative  motives ; 
and,  secondly,  that  whatever  they  borrowed  underwent  a 
transformation  into  something  that  is  purely  Assyrian 
in  character. 

The  lotus    (Fig.   69,  a);  lotus-palmette    (&),   and 

58 


CHALDEA  AND  ASSYRIA 

winged  disk  or  globe  (e)  are  undeniably  derived  from 
Egypt-  Tne  rosette  (Fig.  69,  c)  and  the  guilloche  (/) 
are  common  to  both  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  ornament, 
but  it  is  not  demonstrated  that  they  were  not  indepen- 
dently invented  by  the  Chaldeans  from  whom  the  As- 
syrians probably  received  them. 

The  chevron  (Fig.  69,  g)  and  imbricated  or  scale 
ornaments  (d)  are  peculiarly  Assyrian,  but  as  they  are 
also  found  in  Egyptian  art,  they  belong  with  the  rosette 
and  guilloche  in  the  doubtful  class  as  to  origin.  The 
so-called  "pomegranate"  (Fig.  69,  h,  i)  is  probably 
Chaldean.  The  pine  cone  (Fig.  70,  a)  is  an  Assyrian 
form,  but  as  it  conforms  in  outline  and  in  its  occurrence 
to  the  lotus-bud,  it  may  be  claimed  as  a  lotus  derivative. 
The  stepped-pyramid,  used  as  a  parapet  ornament, 
seems  to  be  purely  Chaldean. 

But  if  the  Assyrians  borrowed  freely  from  Egypt l 
they  as  freely  modified  what  they  borrowed.  The  lotus 
was  carved  in  low  relief  with  sharply  pointed,  gracefully 
curved  petals  and  sepals  (Figs.  69,  a,  70,  a),  and  was 
given  a  wholly  new  calyx,  the  three  sepals  being  evi- 
dently looked  upon  as  petals ;  the  bud  was  likewise  given 
an  extra  calyx  and  carved  sometimes  with  three  instead 
of  two  sepals  showing  (Fig.  70,  b).  It  was  alternated 
with  buds  and  with  pine-cones,  and  combined  into  elab- 

i  Prof.  Goodyear  quotes  Oppert  for  proof  that  under  Gudea  (3000  B.  c.?), 
the  Chaldeans  imported  stone  from  Egypt  during  the  Fourth  Dynasty; 
points  out  that  under  the  XVIIIth  Dynasty  Assyria  was  a  province  of 
Egypt,  and  calls  attention  to  the  later  Assyrian  conquests  in  Egypt  and 
Syria  and  to  the  importance  of  Phenician  commerce  between  Assyria  and 
both  Egypt  and  Syria  ("Grammar  of  the  Lotus,"  page  177,  note).  It  must 
be  remembered  that  the  Phenicians  not  only  carried  Egyptian  products  to 
Asia,  but  themselves  counterfeited  or  imitated  them,  so  that  Egyptian 
forms  and  motives  were  greatly  multiplied  and  widely  disseminated. 

59 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 


orate  rosettes  (Plate  IV,  8).  The  lotus-palmette 
(Fig.  69,  b)  was  often  substituted  for  the  lotus  (Plate 
IV,  1)  and  used  in  borders;  as  an  isolated  terminal 

ornament  (Fig.  72,  a)  ; 
as  the  chief  detail  of  the 
Sacred  Tree  (Fig.  70, 
c;  Plate  IV,  2),  and 
in  many  other  ways, 
carved  in  alabaster-re- 
lief, painted  on  plaster, 
enameled  on  bricks,  cast 
or  engraved  in  bronze. 
In  all  borders,  the  units 
were  connected  by  vo- 
luted  bands,  often  curved 
into  semi-circles  or  semi- 
ellipses  (Figs.  69,  a,  70) 
and  frequently  fastened 
together  by  links.  This 
is  a  purely  Assyrian  de- 
vice, and  the  organic  link- 
ing of  the  units — no 
longer  merely  strung  along  a  straight  line  as  in 
most  Egyptian  examples — marks  a  decided  decora- 
tive advance.  Whether  the  frequent  use  of  branch- 
ing and  opposed  double  volutes  (Fig.  71),  so  com- 
mon in  Assyrian  decoration,  was  derived  from  the  vo- 
lutes of  the  Egyptian  trilobe  lotus  and  lotus-palmette, 
or  from  the  curled-over  ends  of  the  linked  bands,  is  not 
clear  and  perhaps  not  important.  The  discussion  as  to 
whether  the  palmette  in  Assyrian  art  "is"  a  lotus  or  a 

60 


FIG.  70.  a,  b.  PINE 
BORDER;  c,  DETAIL 
TREE. 


AND    LOTUS 
OF     SACRED 


CHALDEA  AND  ASSYRIA 

palm-tree  also  becomes  unimportant  if  one  simply  ad- 
mits that  the  decorative  motive  was  derived  from  or 
suggested  by  the  Egyptian  lotus-palmette,  but  was 
treated  in  detail  by  the  Assyrians  in  a  manner  plainly 
suggesting  a  conventional  palm-tree 
(Fig.  72) ;  an  example  of  decora- 
tive  convergence  which  has  scores  of 
parallels  in  the  history  of  ornament 
motives  and  symbols.  In  the  sin- 
gular "sacred  tree"  which  so  often 
occurs  in  Assyrian  reliefs  (Fig.  70, 
c),  the  intention  is  unquestionably 
to  represent  or  symbolize  the  palm; 
in  that  sense  the  palmettes  which 
compose  it  "are"  palm-tree  forms, 
while  in  decorative  type  and  origin 
they  "are"  lotus-palmettes.  The 
so-called  pine-cones  referred  to 
above  may  represent,  as  believed  by 
E.  B.  Tylor,  the  inflorescence  of  the 
male  date-palm,  or  it  may  be  what  it 
appears  to  be,  a  pine-cone. 

The  rosette  is  used  with  such  frequency  as  to  deserve 
to  be  called  the  Assyrian  motive  par  excellence.  It  ap- 
pears in  every  branch  of  Assyrian  decoration,  and  in 
every  possible  material.  The  pomegranate  is  more 
exclusively  Assyrian  but  less  conspicuous  by  its  fre- 
quency. All-over  patterns  are  rare ;  of  architectural  or 
at  least  of  genuine  structural  forms  there  are  very  few. 
Columns  appear  only  in  the  form  of  colonnettes;  a  few 
bases  and  capitals  have  been  found,  and  the  reliefs  from 

61 


FIG.  71.     ASSYRIAN  VO- 
LUTES. 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

the  palaces  show  how  they  were  used,  as  mullions  and  as 
supports  for  pavilions.  In  these,  as  also  in  furniture, 
coupled  volutes  are  favorite  devices,  and  undoubtedly 

furnish  the  first  step  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  Ionic  capital 
(Fig.  71). 

Living  Forms. 

The  human  figure,  grotesques 
or  monsters,  part  man  and  part 
beast,  and  representations  of 
animals,  all  play  a  large  part  in 
Assyrian  decorative  art;  not 
merely  in  the  great  pictures  in 
low  relief  which  wainscoted  the 
lower  parts  of  the  interior  walls, 
but  in  more  purely  ornamental 

FIG.  72.  a,  TERMINAL  PALM-  and      symbolic      compositions, 
;  b,  PALM-TREE,  FROM  sometimes  carved  in  relief  in  ala- 


baster, sometimes  in  flat  color  on 

tiles  or  plaster.  The  huge  symbolic  "portal  guardians" 
—  winged  monsters  with  human  heads  and  bodies  of 
bulls  —  that  flanked  the  arched  gateways  of  the  palaces 
and  fortifications,  are  genuine  decorative  compositions 
of  extraordinary  power  and  remarkable  execution.  The 
details  are  highly  conventionalized;  five  legs  are  shown, 
two  appearing  in  front  elevation  and  four  in  the  side 
view;  the  hair  and  beard  are  curled  into  closely  coiled 
spirals  and  the  muscles  exaggerated  (Plate  IV,  7). 
The  winged  lion  and  winged  bull,  as  well  as  winged 
human  figures  representing  deities,  appear  frequently 

62 


CHALDEA  AND  ASSYRIA 

in  enameled  earthenware  tiles.  The  griffin  (Fig.  73), 
a  monster  with  a  lion's  or  panther's  body  and  the  head 
and  wings  of  an  eagle,  plays  an  important  part  in  this 
decorative  system  of  religious  symbolism.  It  probably 
originated  in  Chaldea,  and  spread  thence  through  West- 
ern Asia,  to  appear  in  Greek  and  Roman  art  in  later 


FIG.  73.     GRIFFIN  OR  MONSTER,  FROM  A  RELIEF. 

years.  In  naturalistic  pictures  the  forms  and  action 
of  animals  were  rendered  often  with  surprising  realism ; 
but  these  belong  in  the  field  of  pictorial  relief  sculpture 
rather  than  of  ornament. 

Colors  and  Technic. 

The  Assyrian  technic  in  the  representation  of  nature 
never  fell  into  the  absolute  rigidity  of  hieratic  conven- 
tion observed  in  Egypt.  Within  its  far  narrower  field, 
it  was  excellent  in  execution,  but  less  rich  in  variety  of 
motive  and  pattern  of  ornament.  The  gamut  of  color 
was  restricted:  green,  blue,  yellow,  black  and  dark  red 
were  the  colors  chiefly  employed.  The  use  of  black  in 

63 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

chevrons  as  a  detail  of  the  decoration  is  particularly 
noticeable  (Fig.  69,  b,  c,  g,  h).  Not  many  examples 
of  painted  ornament  have  been  preserved;  a  few  frag- 
ments of  plaster  show  patterns  like  those  of  the  enameled 
tiles.  Bronze  was  used  for  jars  and  bowls,  for  furni- 
ture and  probably  also  for  covering  gates  and  some- 
times other  architectural  features;  but  very  few  ex- 
amples of  this  application  of  bronze  to  architecture  have 
been  preserved.  The  gates  of  Balawat  in  the  British 
Museum,  dating  from  the  time  of  Shalmaneser  II  (9th 
century  B.C.)  were  decorated  with  strips  or  bands  of 
sheet  bronze  bearing  repousse  reliefs  of  the  campaigns 
of  that  king.  The  recent  German  excavations  in  Baby- 
lon have  uncovered  the  palace  with  its  Gate  of  Ishtar, 
whose  towers  were  adorned  with  plates  of  bronze  which 
have  disappeared.  In  these  excavations  it  was  also 
found  that  the  Babylonians,  lacking  stone  and  alabaster, 
faced  their  gateways  with  enameled  bricks  bearing  large 
compositions  in  color,  each  brick  being  separately 
molded  and  colored  to  produce  its  own  small  fraction  of 
the  design.  This  style  of  decoration  was  later  adopted 
in  Persia:  it  is  probable  that  Babylonian  artists  were 
imported  to  Susa  to  execute  the  Persian  bricks  and  to 
teach  the  art  to  the  Persians,  among  whom  decorative 
ceramics  have  been  an  important  art  ever  since. 

Books  Recommended. 

BOTTA  and  FLANDIN.:  Monument  de  Ninive  (Paris,  1849-50). 
— PERROT  and  CHIPIEZ:  Histoire  de  I'art  dans  Vantiquite:  Clial- 
dee  et  Assyr'ie  (Paris,  1883);  also  English  translation  by  W. 
Armstrong,  History  of  Art  in  Chaldcea  and  Assyria  (London, 
1884). — PLACE:  Ninive  et  VAssyrie  (Paris,  1867-70). 

64 


CHAPTER  V 

WEST  ASIATIC   ORNAMENT 
PHRYGIA,  LYDIA  AND  PERSIA 

The  northern  half  of  Asia  Minor,  west  of  the  river 
Halys,  was  occupied,  during  the  centuries  from  the 
tenth  to  the  sixth  B.C.,  by  the  Phrygians,  originally  from 


Fio.  74.    a,  PART  OP  FACADE  OF  "TOMB  OF  MIDAS";  b,  DETAIL  FBOM  TOMB  AT 

DOGHANLOU. 

Thrace ;  whose  empire  was  overthrown  early  in  the  sixth 
century  by  the  Lydians  of  the  extreme  western  littoral. 
Along  the  Asiatic  shore  south  of  Lydia  were  the  Gary- 
ans  and  Lycians.  In  all  of  these  several  domains  there 

65 


Fio.  75.    CAPITAL  FROM 
NEANDBEIA. 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

developed  a  material  civilization  which  has  left  numer- 
ous remains,  chiefly  of  tombs,  though  excavations  now 
being  made  at  Sardis  and  others  that  are  still  in  the 
future  may  supply  us  with  products  of  other  arts  as  well 

as  of  architecture.  The  prin- 
cipal examples  of  ornament  thus 
far  to  hand  occur  in  the  rock-cut 
tomb-fa9ades,  some  of  which, 
like  the  so-called  Tomb  of  Midas 
(Fig.  74,  a)  and  a  tomb  at 
Doghanlou  (b)  suggest  textile 
design.  This  region  has  from 
great  antiquity  been  noted  for 
the  weaving  of  rugs;  other  ornaments  are  clearly  de- 
rived from  wood-construction,  while  others  again  show 
Assyrian,  Persian  and  ^Egean  influences. 

Several  capitals  and  fragments  of  capitals  (Fig. 
75)  found  in  Asia  Minor,  with  branching  volutes  and 
with  recurved  petals,  furnish  the  probable  prototypes  of 
the  Greek  Ionic  capital  and  of  certain  details  of  the 
Persian  capitals. 

Persian  Ornament. 

The  art  of  Asia  Minor  bears  no  comparison  in  splen- 
dor and  variety  with  that  of  the  great  Medo-Persian 
empire  of  the  Achsemenid  kings — Cyrus,  Cambyses, 
Darius,  Xerxes  and  their  successors.  This  empire, 
which  began  its  conquering  career  in  608  under  the 
Mede  Cyaxares,  and  fifty  years  later  attained  greatness 
under  Cyrus  (559-529)  and  his  successors,  developed 
a  grandiose  architecture  of  palaces,  halls,  gates  and 

66 


PHRYGIA,  LYDIA  AND  PERSIA 

tombs  in  which  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  motives  were 
blended  with  others  derived  from  wooden  construction 
and  from  the  early  art  of  the  Ionian  Greeks  of  Asia 
Minor.  This  brilliant  and  showy  art  expired  with  the 
fall  of  Persia  before  the  Macedonian  armies  of  Alex- 
ander (330  B.C.)  ;  but  the  art  instinct  of  Persia,  though 
under  an  eclipse  for  several  centuries,  was  destined  to 
revive  under  the  Sassanian  rule,  and  in  still  later  cen- 
turies to  affect  profoundly  the  development  of  Moham- 
medan decorative  art. 

Architectural  Ornament. 

The  ruins  of  Persepolis,  Pasargadae  and  Susa  reveal 
a  remarkable  develop- 
ment of  columnar  archi- 
tecture of  stone  with 
wooden  ceilings  and 
roofs.  The  walls  were 
of  stone,  or  of  brick  with 
stone  dressings  to  the 
doors  and  windows. 
These  have  banded 
architraves  with  pa- 
pyrus-bundle moldings 
and  cavetto  cornices, 
evidently  derived  from 
Egypt  (Figs.  76, 77,  a). 
Stone  was  used  for 

embankment  walls  and  stairs,  for  the  great  palace 
terraces,  for  the  window-dressings  just  mentioned, 
and  for  the  columns;  the  walls  were  chiefly  of  sun- 

67 


FIG.  76.    DOORWAY,  PERSEPOLIS. 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

dried  brick,  though  at  Susa  enameled  bricks  were 
used  with  extraordinary  effect,  to  produce  huge  wall- 
pictures  in  low  rounded  relief,  and  bands  of  elaborate 
decoration,  all  in  rich  colors  enameled  or  fused  upon 
the  surface  of  the  bricks  (Plate  IV,  14,  15).  Decora- 
tive relief-sculpture  in  stone  was  employed,  based 
primarily  on  Assyrian  models,  but  treated  in  a  taste 
peculiar  to  the  Persians,  and  always  highly  decorative. 

The  most  striking  feature  of  Persian  architecture  was 
the  columns  with  forked  capitals  representing  the  fore 
parts  of  bulls  set  upon  an  elaborate  composition  of 
double  scrolls,  upright  and  inverted  bells,  and  carved 
beads  (Plate  IV,  9,  10).  These  are  typical  of  Persian 
eclecticism;  one  recognizes  the  Egyptian  bell  capital  (see 
Fig.  46) ;  the  Assyrian  and  Phenician  double  scrolls 
(Fig.  71) ;  the  Asia  Minor  recurved  leafage  (note  the 
astagal  or  necking  in  Fig.  75)  ;  and  the  primitive 
wooden  forked  post  which  has  been  used  from  im- 
memorial antiquity,  in  Media  and  Phrygia,  to  support 
the  timber  roofs  of  peasant  huts. 

The  shafts  were  finely  fluted,  and  rested  on  elaborate 
molded  bases,  often  bell-shaped  (Fig.  77,  d;  Plate  IV, 
9)  carved  with  elaborate  leaf -patterns.  The  slender 
proportions  of  the  shafts,  their  small  flutings  and 
molded  bases,  all  point  to  a  common  origin  with  that  of 
the  Greek  Ionic  column  which  came  to  its  full  develop- 
ment a  century  later  than  the  Persian  column.  Both 
probably  had  their  origin  in  Asia  Minor,  though  the 
remains  of  their  prototypes  thus  far  discovered  are 
scanty. 

The  same  is  true  of  the  banded  architrave  and  the 

68 


PHRYGIA,  LYDIA  AND  PERSIA 

dentils  of  the  Ionic  order; 
they  are  found  both  in  Per- 
sian (see  Fig.  77,  a)  and 
Lycian  architecture,  in 
both  of  which  they  plainly 
reveal  their  origin  in  tim- 
ber construction. 


Persian  Ornament  Motives. 

These  were  chiefly  de- 
rived from  Egypt  and 
Mesopotamia ;  the  lotus, 
lotus-palmette  and  rosette 
are  those  most  frequently 
employed,  but  treated  with 
details  which  differentiate 
them  clearly  from  the 
Egyptian,  Assyrian  or 
Chaldean  forms.  In  linear 
bands  of  lotus-palmettes 
and  buds  the  units  are  con- 
nected by  nearly  semicir- 
cular loops  instead  of  the 
flattened  links  of  the  As- 
syrian style  (Plate  IV, 
14).  Plate  IV,  12,  and 
Fig.  77,  b,  show  the  lotus 
palmette  on  a  stem  like  that 
of  some  palms  which  grow 
by  successive  pairs  of 
leaves  rising  one  out  of  the 

69 


FIG.  77. 


d 

PERSIAV  DETAILS. 


a,  Architrave  and  Cornice  from  a 
Tomb;  b,  Rosettes  and  Palm;  c, 
Stair  Parapet;  d,  Column-Base, 
Persepolis. 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

other;  evidently,  therefore,  not  intended  at  all  for  a 
lotus,  but  as  a  purely  conventional  plant- form,  perhaps 
even  a  palm-tree.  Spiral  and  voluted  forms  are  also 
common,  both  in  flat  ornament  (see  Plate  IV)  and  in 
the  mighty  grouped  vertical  volutes  of  the  capitals  of 
columns  (Fig.  78).  The  Assyrian  stepped  parapet 
also  appears  in  the  decoration  of  the  platforms  and  stairs 
of  Persepolis  (Fig.  77,  c).  From  Egypt  were  de- 
rived the  fluted  cavetto  cornice  (Fig.  77,  a)  and  the 
winged  disk,  converted  into  a  winged  ring  encircling  the 
figure  of  a  god,  Ahuri-Mazda  (Fig.  79).  The  sculp- 
tural representations  of  warriors,  winged  lions  and 
winged  bulls  were  based  on  Assyrian  prototypes.  The 
wood-constructions  of  Media  and  Asia  Minor  gave  the 

suggestions  for  the 
forked  capital,  the 
banded  architrave  and 
the  dentil.  The  leaf 
ornaments  on  the  bases 
(Fig.  77,  d)  and  the 
shorter  leaf-ornaments 
resembling  eggs  and 
darts  (Fig.  77,  c)  are 
possibly  remote  deriva- 
tives from  the  lotus 
bud  and  from  lotus 
bands ;  more  directly, 
however,  derived  from 

Fio.  78.    VOLUTES  OF  A  CAPITAL,  Assyria,    as    is    also   the 

PERSEPOLIS.  * 

stepped-pyramid  para- 
pet.    The  bead-and-reel  molding,  which  occurs  in  some 

70 


PHRYGIA,  LYDIA  AND  PERSIA 

capitals,  is  possibly  derived  from  the  papyrus-bundle 
molding.  The  torus,  which  appears  in  the  column  bases, 
the  bead-and-reel,  the  shaft-fluting,  the  decorated  col- 
umn-base, the  banded  architrave,  were  all  destined  to  be- 
come important  elements  in  the  architectural  decoration 


FIG.  79.     AHURI-MAZDA  FROM  A  RELIEF. 

of  the  Greeks.  Whether  their  origination  is  to  be  cred- 
ited to  the  Persians,  or,  as  is  more  likely,  to  the  Ionian 
and  other  races  of  Asia  Minor,  is  not  clear;  but  the  Per- 
sian was  the  earliest  developed  architecture  in  which  they 
were  systematically  employed. 

Persian  ornament  is  of  interest  partly  on  account  of 
its  own  splendor,  partly  on  account  of  its  relations  on 
the  one  hand  to  the  Semitic  art  of  Mesopotamia  and  on 
the  other  to  the  Aryan  art  of  Greece.  It  stands  inter- 
mediate between  the  two,  alike  in  time,  place  and  char- 
acter. It  is  an  eclectic  style,  borrowing  freely  from 
every  source,  but  profoundly  modifying  whatever  it 
adopted,  and  displaying  a  genuine  creative  originality, 
as  well  as  a  remarkable  power  of  ingenious  adaptation, 

71 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

in  its  use  and  development  of  what  it  borrowed  to  new 
purposes  and  in  new  combinations. 

Books  Recommended, 

DIEULAFOY:  UArt  antique  de  la  Perse  (Paris,  1883). — 
FELLOWS:  Account  of  Discoveries  in  Lycia  (London,  1841). — 
FLANDIN  and  COSTE:  Voyage  en  Perse  (Paris,  1843—54). — PER- 
ROT  and  CHIPIEZ:  Histoire  de  Vart  dans  Vantiquite:  Perse; 
Phrygie,  Lydie,  Carle  et  Lycie;  Sardaigne  et  Judee  (Paris, 
1885-1890). — The  same  in  English:  History  of  Art  in  Persia; 
History  of  Art  in  Phrygia,  Lydia,  Caria  and  Lycia;  History  of 
Art  in  Sardinia  and  Judaea  (London,  1886-1891). — TEXIER: 
Description  del*  Armenie  et  la  Perse  (Paris,  1842-52). 


CHAPTER  VI 

PRE-HELLENIC   ORNAMENT 
AND  ASIATIC 


Intermediate  between  the  art  of  Egypt  and  Meso- 
potamia on  the  one  hand,  and  the  distinctively  Occi- 
dental art  of  Greece  on  the  other,  stands  the  group  of 
styles  that  developed  in  the  islands  and  along  the  shores 
of  the  ^Bgean  and  the  Mediterranean  Seas  during  a 
period  of  thirteen  to  fifteen  hundred  years  previous  to 
the  first  Olympiad  (776  B.C.).  The  cradle  of  the  civi- 
lization represented  by  these  styles  was  the  island  of 
Crete  —  Crete  "of  the  hundred  cities,"  as  it  is  called  in  the 
Homeric  poems.  The  Cretan  civilization,  as  made 
known  to  us  by  the  discoveries  of  Evans  and  others  at 
Knossos,  Phaestos  and  in  other  parts  of  the  island, 
beginning  in  a  remote  past  in  the  third  millennium  B.C., 
had  attained  a  high  development  by  the  end  of  the  XXth 
century  B.C.,  and  reached  its  culmination  in  the  XVIth 
and  XVth  centuries.  This  progress  was  interrupted 
by  repeated  catastrophes  which  mark  its  division  into 
periods,1  and  was  finally  overwhelmed,  about  1400  B.C., 
by  a  foreign  invasion,  perhaps  of  Pelasgi  or  Achaeans 
from  Greece. 

i  First,  Middle  and  Late  Minoan  eras,  each  subdivided  into  periods.  The 
name  Minoan  is  derived  from  that  of  the  more  or  less  legendary  King  Minos. 

73 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

The  influence  of  the  Cretan  culture — which  though 
contemporary  with  the  Middle  and  New  Empires  in 
Egypt  seems  to  have  borrowed  but  little  from  that  coun- 
try,— dominated  that  of  prehistoric  Greece  and  Asia 
Minor.  Out  of  this  influence  was  developed  the  art  of 
Mycenae,  Tiryns  and  Troy  (Ilios,  Ilion),  commonly 
called  Mycenaean,  which  flourished  from  1500  to  1300 
B.C.,  and  after  two  centuries  of  decline  was  in  turn  ex- 
tinguished by  the  Dorian  migration  of  1104  B.C.  Artis- 
tic activity,  however,  continued  in  certain  islands  like 
Melos  and  Rhodes,  while  Assyrian  art  was  flourishing 
in  Asia  (1100-600  B.C.),  and  while  the  Phenicians  were 
distributing  and  imitating  the  art-products  of  both 
Egypt  and  Assyria  and  making  them  known  through- 
out the  whole  Mediterranean  basin.  On  the  island  of 
Cyprus  all  these  various  currents  of  art-influence  con- 
verged into  a  singularly  mixed  product,  which  partakes 
by  turns  of  the  characteristics  of  each  of  its  components, 
and  in  its  later  phases  also  reflects  the  influence  of  early 
Greek  art. 

Cretan  Ornament. 

The  excavations  at  Knossos,  Phaastos,  Hagia  Triada 
and  other  Cretan  sites  have  disclosed  the  remains  of  a 
well-developed  civilization  with  an  art  vigorous  and  full 
of  character,  which  strongly  influenced  that  of  the  whole 
^Egean  and  eastern  Mediterranean.  Of  its  architecture 
nothing  is  left  but  foundations  of  extensive  palaces  and 
fortifications,  fragments  of  a  few  columns  and  archi- 
traves, and  bits  of  painted  plastering  on  walls.  The 
columns  (Fig.  80)  tapered  downward  and  bore  sim- 

n 


FIG.  80. 
COLUMN  FHOM 

KNOSSOS. 


AEGEAN  AND  ASIATIC 

pie  heavy  torus  capitals.    A  notable  architectural  mo- 
tive, frequently  recurring  in  Mycenaean  art,  is  that  shown 

in  Figure  81    (page  76)    composed  of  a   f *nF[| 

pair  of  semi-rosettes  flanking  a  vertical 
rectangle.  Its  significance  and  origin  are 
uncertain.  On  plaster  and  on  pottery  the 
circle,  rosette  and  spiral  wave  or  "  Vitruvian 
scroll"  are  frequent,  in  various  combina- 
tions (Figure  82) ;  also  a  heart-shaped  mo- 
tive which  was  carried  into  Mycensean 
decoration.  The  elaborate  "key"  or  fret- 
pattern  of  Figure  83  is  from  a  plastered 
wall  at  Knossos. 

Of  Cretan  pottery  comparatively  little 
has  survived,  but  the  elaborate  late  Minoan 
vase  from  Knossos  shown  in  Fig.  84  reveals  a  highly 
developed  pattern  of  conventional  leaf -forms.  Fig.  85 
from  a  sarcophagus  found  near  Gortyna,  shows  a  curi- 
ously conventionalized  portrayal  of  marine  plant-life. 
Figure  86  shows  two  all-over  patterns  from  a  large  pot- 
tery ossuary;  one  resembles  a  common  Egyptian  pat- 
tern (see  Figure  52) ;  the  other  is  peculiarly  Cretan. 

The  interior  of  the  same  ossuary 
is  decorated  with  representations 
of  waves,  fishes  and  shells. 

Mycensean  Ornament. 

The  art-products  of  the  My- 
cenaean   culture    include    those 
from     Tiryns,     Troy,     Argos, 
FIG.  84.  LATE  MINOAX  VASE.  Nauplia,  Menidi  and  other  sites, 

75 


Fig.81,  Cretan  Frieze  Ornament 


Fig.85.  Fret  Rrttemfinossoa. 


Fig86.Cretari4//&verf:ltttern3 


Fiq  SQ.JIanne.  Life.Mycencean  Fbttery 


Fig  94  Mycenaean  Motives 


AEGEAN  AND  ASIATIC 

as  well  as  from  Mycenae  proper,  besides  specimens 
found  in  Rhodes,  Cyprus  and  other  islands,  which 
were  obviously  imported  from  Mycenaean  centers.  This 
culture  was  especially  proficient  in  the  minor  arts,  in 
pottery,  goldsmith's  work  and  bronze.  It  was  less  no- 
table relatively  in  its  architecture,  although  the  great 
tomb  known  as  the  Tholos  of  Atreus,  and  the  Lion  Gate, 
both  at  Mycenae,  attest  the  power  to  produce  a  certain 
amount  of  architectural  splendor.  The  ruins  of  Troy, 
Tiryns  and  Mycenae  show  extensive  stone  structures 
of  a  somewhat  primitive  character.  Figure  87  shows 
the  upper  part  of  one  of  the  columns  of  the  Tholos  door- 
way, with  a  capital  and  downward-tapering  shaft  evi- 
dently derived  from  Cretan  prototypes. 

Of  sculpture  there  is  very  little,  no  free  statues  having 
come  down  to  us;  but  the  so-called  "island  stones"  or 
carved  gems  exhibit  a  high  degree  of  artistic  skill,  and 
there  are  fragmentary  reliefs  showing  intelligent  study 
of  nature. 

Mycenaean  ornament  displays  many  motives  from 
Cretan  art  (e.g.,  that  in  Figure  89  from  a  frieze),  and 
is  itself  continued  in  many  works  of  Cypriote,  Rhodian 
and  Phenician  art.  Each  has  its  own  characteristic 
forms,  but  connected  more  or  less  by  common  motives. 
Pottery  and  metal  work  were  the  fields  most  success- 
fully cultivated,  and  the  ruins  of  Tiryns  have  also  re- 
vealed much  clever  decoration  on  plaster.  Primarily 
growing  out  of  Cretan  art,  Mycenaean  ornament  displays 
frequent  traces  of  Egyptian  influence,  and  in  addition 
exhibits  a  considerable  amount  of  indigenous  design, 
both  naturalistic  and  technomorphic.  The  example  in 

77 


FIG.  91.    MYCENAEAN  POTTERY,  SPIRALS. 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

Figure  88  shows  pat- 
terns derived  from 
basketry,  singularly  like 
many  found  on  South 
American  pottery ;  while 
in  Figure  90,  a,  b,  c.  and 
Fig.  97,  the  representa- 
tions of  marine  plants 
and  animals  reveal  an 
instinct  for  the  observa- 
tion and  imitation  of  Nature,  of  which  traces  are  found 
in  Cretan  art,  and  which  later,  in  Greek  art,  flowered 
into  the  superb  sculpture  of  the  Periclean  age. 

Besides  the  architectural  forms  already  referred  to, 
the  motives  characteristic  of  Mycenaean  ornament  are 
the  zig-zag  (Figure  87),  spiral  (Fig.  91);  the  run- 
ning scroll;  a  heart-shaped  motive  (Figure  94)  perhaps 
converging  towards  the  cuttlefish  (Figure  92) ;  the 
rosette,  both  carved  and 
painted  (see  Figure  89) ;  the 
double-branched  volute  recall- 
ing the  lotus  trilobe  (Figure 
94,  c) ;  a  peculiar  variant  of 
the  guilloche  (or  the  current 
scroll?)  shown  in  Fig.  95,  a 
and  in  the  detail  of  Figure  89 ; 
and  a  number  of  unnamed  mo- 
tives, e.g.,  the  imbricated  pat- 
tern from  Tiryns  in  Figure  93. 
A  somewhat  similar  motive  in  a  linear  repetition  on 
vases,  suggests  an  inverted  egg-and-dart  (Figure  95,  b) . 

78 


Fio.  95.  a,  CURRENT  SCROLL, 
TIRYNS;  b,  VASE  ORNAMENT, 
MYCENAE. 


AND  ASIATIC 


Figs.  96  and  97  show  various  Na- 

ture-forms,    apparently     derived 

from  marine  life  ;  Fig.  97  is  a  vase 

from  lalyssos  bearing  a  squid  as  its 

chief    ornament.     The    cuttlefish 

squid,  dolphin   (?),  and  sea-  weed 

are  common,  besides  many  forms 

like  those  in  Figure  90,  d,  Figs. 

96  and  97,  impossible  to  identify. 

On  the  so-called  "Mycenae  buttons" 

—  thin  plates  of  gold  stamped  or 

repousse  in  low  relief,  appears  the 

peculiarly  Mycenaean  motive  of  a 

band  winding  in  and  out  around  Fl°-    9G-     PLANT  -FORMS, 

small  eyes  or  round  dots,  with  ex- 

cellent decorative  effect  (Fig.  98)  . 

The  lotus  and  the  multiple  scroll,  so  common  in  Egyp- 


Fio.  97.    SQUIDS,  ON  MYCENAEAN  VASES. 

tian  decoration,  appear  frequently,  as  in  a  slab  from  a 
tomb-ceiling  in  Orchomenos,2  in  the  band  from  a  wall- 

2  Figured  in  P.  &  C.,  "Histoire  de  1'Art";  Sturgis,  "History  of  Architec- 
ture," vol.  I,  125;  Tarbell,  "A  History  of  Greek  Art,"  page  55;  Marquand, 
"Greek  Architecture,"  page  155. 

79 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 


FIG. 


painting  in  Tiryns  (Figure  99),  the  ornament  from  a 
Mycenaean  sword  shown  in  Figure  100,  a,  and  the 
Mycenaean  stele  b.  The  spiral  also  ap- 
pears in  other  forms,  as  in  Figure  101, 
page  81,  on  the  base  a  and  in  the  bronze 
work  detail  b  (  from  a  tripod  in  Athens  ; 
its  Mycenaean  origin  is  problematic). 
98.  A  MY-  I*1  Figure  103  we  have  rosettes  from 
BUTTON.  Tiryns  and  Mycenae  obviously  de- 
rived from  Cretan  prototypes  like  those  in  Figure  82. 
Figure  102  shows  a  Mycenaean  double-rosette  frieze 
ornament  in  alabaster  very  similar  to  the  Tirynthian  ex- 
ample of  Figure  88,  both  being  nearly  identical  with  the 
Cretan  example  in  Figure  81.  Figures  104,  105  and 
107  exhibit  other  Mycenaean  nature-forms.  In  Figure 
104,  a  is  a  common  Mycenaean  plant  form  (see  also  Fig. 
96)  which  it  is  interesting  to  compare  with  the  Egyp- 
tian lotus-palmette  b. 

Phenician  Ornament. 

During  the  decline  of  ^Bgean  art,  from  1500  B.C.  on, 
the  Phenicians  were  developing 
and  extending  their  commerce  and 
industries.  This  presumably  Sem- 
itic people,  occupying  a  narrow 
strip  of  the  Syrian  coast,  north  of 
Palestine,  were  the  mercantile  car- 
riers of  the  ancient  world,  with 
prosperous  colonies  along  the 
Mediterranean  shores,  of  which  Carthage  became  the 
chief.  They  were  traders  and  imitators  rather  than 

80 


FIG.  99.    PAINTKD  WALL- 
PATTERN,  TIRYNS. 


'igJOlM/ceiKeanSpirab     ajtycen? Plant; 


FigJOffivmaPhenkianPhtler' 


fletail.5ilverCup. 


Figl08Phenkian:Silver 


Fig.ntCypnoteJ/vma 


Fig.H5.Cypriote  Stele, 
Bronze. 


81 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

originators  in  art;  they  carried  and  exchanged,  and 
freely  counterfeited,  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  or 
Babylonian  wares  and  stuffs.  The  detail  from  a  silver 


a 


FIG.  100.    MYCENAE  SPIRAL  ALL-OVERS;  a,  GOLD  IKLAY  oir 
SWORD;  b,  BRONZE  STELE. 

platter  in  Figure  106  is  plainly  an  imitation  of  Egyp- 
tian work.     Sidon  was  for  a  long  period  under  Egyp- 

I  tian  rule.  The  Phenicians  were 
skilful  weavers,  dyers  and  bronze- 
workers.  Solomon's  temple  at 
Jerusalem  was  largely  of  Pheni- 
cian  workmanship,  and  the  ac- 
counts in  I  Kings,  vii,  13-45  and 
I  Chronicles  iii,  15-iv,  17  prove 
the  Phenicians  of  1000  B.C.  to 
have  been  capable  of  cast- 
ing large  objects  of  "brass" 
(bronze),  such  as  the  columns 
"Jachin"  and  "Boaz"  and  the 
huge  "laver"  borne  on  twelve  oxen. 

Distinctive   Phenician   ornament   motives   are   few. 

82 


FIG.    114.    CYPRIOTE    STONE 
STELE. 


AEGEAN  AND  ASIATIC 

The  most  characteristic  is  a  species  of  palmette  springing 

from  the  concave  side  of  a  voluted 
crescent  (Figures  108,  109,  a,  c), 
derived  from  the  Assyrian  pal- 
mette with  horns,  converging  with 
the  Phenician  crescent,  symbol  of 
the  goddess  Astarte.  It  persists 
into  Greek  art  of  the  fifth  century 
B.C.  appearing  as  a  vase  band-mo- 


FIG.  115.    CYPRIOTE  LOTUS, 
FROM  VASE. 


tive  (Figure  109,  b). 

Cypriote  Ornament. 

Cyprus  was  an  important  entrepot  of  Phenician  com- 
merce, and  its  art  is  peculiarly  interesting  because  of  the 
mingling  of  Egyptian,  .ZEgean,  Phenician  and  early 
Greek  influences  which  it  betrays.  In  general  character 
it  resembles  sometimes  the  Mycenaean,  sometimes  the 
Phenician.  Its  principal  motives  are 
the  lotus,  almost  grotesquely  trans- 
formed from  the  Egyptian  type 
(Figure  112,  also  Fig.  115) ;  the  lotus 
palmette  in  several  variant  forms, 
one  the  Phenician  palmette  with  up- 
turned volutes  (Figure  111),  and 
others  such  as  those  in  Figure  113  and 
Figure  114,  used  as  finials  or  cap  for 
steles  and  pilasters.  A  curious  de- 
sign, compounded  of  palmettes,  trilobes  and  horns  is 
that  in  Figure  111  from  a  sarcophagus  in  the  Metropoli- 
tan Museum  in  New  York,  from  Amathus ;  in  a  variant 
form  which  may  be  a  lotus  and  not  a  palmette,  it  ap- 

83 


FIG.      116.      CYPRIOTE 
ORNAMENTS  ON 

VASES. 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 


FIG.  117.     PHENICIAN  VASE  FROM  JERUSALEM. 


pears  also  in  Fig- 
ure 110,  appar- 
ently related  to  the 
Assyrian  Sacred 
Tree  (see  Fig.  70, 
c).  It  will  be  ob- 
served that  this 
entire  composition 
recalls  the  primi- 
tive Egyptian  de- 
sign of  Fig.  34. 
The  type  con- 
stantly reappears  in  Asiatic  art.  Rectangles,  lozenges, 

and  checkerings  applied  even  to  the  central  sepal  of  the 

lotus  betray  the  persistent  influence  of  primitive  basketry 

patterns  (Fig.  115,  in  which  note  also  the  swastikas). 

The  lotus  is  always  ungraceful  in  Cypriote  art.     The 

recurved  or  voluted 

sepals  in  Figure  112 

and    Fig.    115    are 

closely  related  to  the 

branching  volutes  in 

Fig.  116,  the  lower 

ornament  in  which— 

a  four-petaled  flower 

— is    probably,    like 

the  checkers,  lozenge 

and  triangle  of  Fig. 

T   -r-i.  tin          FIG.    118.     DETAIL    FROM    CVPRIOTE    VASE 

L15  and   rigure      1A  ^^  QRMIDIA  (MET.  MUSEUM,  N.  Y.). 

a     reminiscence     of 

primitive    pottery    and    basketry    (see    Chapter    II). 


AEGEAN  AND  ASIATIC 


C. 


FIG.  119.    CYPHIOTE  VASE  ORNAMENTS: 
a,  GOOSE  AND  LOTUS; 
6,  TREES  AND  ASTARTE; 
c,  A  LOTUS. 


This  survival  appears  also  in  the  splendid  Phenician 
vase  from  Jerusalem  (Fig.  117)  and  the  Cypriote 
vase  from  Ormidia  (Fig.  118) — the  latter  in  the  New 
York  Metropolitan  Museum.  Animals,  human  figures 
and  plant  forms  appear  on  vases — the  horse,  goose 
(Fig.  119,  a)  and  bull,  and  caricatures  of  the  human 
form  (Fig.  119,  b).3  The  swastika  or  fylfot 
appears  occasionally  as  a  minor  detail,  probably  as 
a  solar  symbol,  as  in  Fig.  115.  The  affronting 

3  Compare  the   queer  plants  beside  the  figure    (is   this   Astarte?)    with 
those  from  Mycenae,  in  Fig.  96  and  Figure  104. 

85 


FIG.     120.    LoTTJS-AND-BiRD     BORDERS 
ON  RHODIAK  AND  MELIAN  VASES. 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

of  two  opposed  birds  or  beasts  on  either  side  of  a 
central  shaft  or  column,  as  in  Figure  110,  preserves 

or  repeats  a  common 
Asiatic  (Assyrian,  My- 
cenaean, Hittite,  Pheni- 
cian)  symbolic  motive,  of 
which  probably  the  earli- 
est examples  is  the  prehis- 
toric Egyptian  slate-carv- 
ing shown  in  Fig.  34. 
Whether  the  goose,  horse, 
swastika,  etc.,  are  solar 
symbols,  is  a  question  not 
yet  certainly  answered.  Fig.  119,  c,  from  a  Cypriote 
cenochoe  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum,  illustrates  the  sin- 
gular mixture  of  lotus  and  other  forms  frequently  met 
with  in  Cypriote  art. 

The  ornament  of  Rhodes  (Kameiros,  lalyssos,  etc.) 
and  of  Melos,  is  a  later  development  from  the  My- 
cenaean, less  mixed  with  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  forms 
than  the  Cypriote.  It  is  found  chiefly  in  pottery  re- 
mains, covering  the  period  from  the  ninth  century  B.C. 
down  to  historic  Greek  art,  thus  supplying  a  connecting 
link,  though  a  slight  one,  between  the  Hellenic  and  pre- 
Hellenic  cultures.  Examples  are  shown  in  Fig.  120 
of  a  Rhodian  lotus-band  (above)  and  a  Melian  (be- 
low), the  latter  an  almost  exact  duplicate  of  that  on 
the  Cypriote  vase  from  Ormidia  shown  in  Fig.  118. 
Comparison  of  both  with  the  Mycenaean  jars  of  Figure 
88  and  Fig.  117  sufficiently  demonstrates  the  inter- 
relation of  these  three  phases  of  pre-Hellenic  art. 

86 


AEGEAN  AND  ASIATIC 
Books  Recommended. 

A.  P.  DI  CESNOLA:  Salaminia,  Cyprus  (London,  1884). — M. 
COLLIGNON:  Archeologie  grecque  (Paris,  1887),  also  an  Eng- 
lish edition. — FURTWANGLER  and  LOSCHKE:  Mykenische  Vasen 
(Berlin,  1886). — MITCHELL:  History  of  Ancient  Sculpture 
(New  York,  1883). — PERROT  AND  CHIPIEZ:  Histoire  de  Vart 
dans  I'antiquite,  la  grece  archaique  (Paris,  1903). — H.  SCHLIE- 
MANN:  Mycence  and  Ilios  (New  York,  1881). 


87 


CHAPTER  VII 

GEEEK   ORNAMENT,   I 

Introductory. 

The  Hellenic  peoples  were  gifted  with  an  especial 
endowment  of  the  artistic  faculty.  While  their  geo- 
graphical situation  brought  them  early  into  contact  with 
the  older  civilizations  of  Egypt,  the  Mediterranean 
basin  and  Mesopotamia,  their  own  esthetic  aptitudes 
enabled  them  to  assimilate  all  that  they  borrowed,  and 
in  transforming  it,  to  endow  it  with  a  wholly  new  ele- 
gance and  refinement.  Two  characteristics  are  con- 
spicuous in  all  their  intellectual  and  artistic  activity: — 
their  attitude  of  persistent  inquiry  in  the  presence  of 
every  fact  and  phenomenon  of  their  experience;  and 
their  recognition  and  pursuit  of  ideals.  The  Greek 
asked  Why?  Whence?  How?  where  other  peoples  had 
simply  acquiesced  unquestioningly  in  Nature's  order  or 
the  teachings  of  tradition,  and  he  strove  unceasingly 
after  unrealized  perfections  in  every  undertaking.  The 
progress  of  Greek  civilization  stands  therefore  in  sharp- 
est contrast  with  the  slow  advance  and  slow  decline  of 
Egyptian  art  bound  by  ancient  and  sacred  traditions, 
and  with  the  stagnation  of  Assyrian  art.  It  was  from 
the  earliest  stages  progressive,  and  in  this  respect 
breathes  the  modern  spirit  and  appeals  to  modern  tastes. 

88 


FIG.  121. — GREEK  VASE,   "FINE"  PERIOD.     (NAPLES  MUSEUM) 


FIG.  121A. — ANTHEMION  BAND  AND  CAP  MOLDINGS,  FROM  THE  ERECHTHEION 


GREEK  ORNAMENT,  I 

Greek  art  in  its  keen  observation  of  Nature,  its  vivacity, 
charm  and  grace,  its  refinement  of  proportion,  its  deli- 
cacy combined  with  vigor,  and  its  artistic  restraint,  is 
not  only  vastly  superior  to  the  arts  that  preceded  it, 
but  at  its  best,  and  within  certain  clear  limitations,  un- 
surpassed by  any  that  have  succeeded  it. 

The  People. 

The  Greeks  were  not  a  nation,  but  a  group  of  small 
states,  bound  together  by  a  common  language  and  re- 
ligion, and  by  certain  common  ethnic  traditions.  Greece 
proper  was  the  center  and  focus  of  their  culture,  but 
Greek  colonies  established  themselves  in  Southern  Italy, 
Crete,  Cyprus,  Rhodes,  the  ^Egean  islands,  while  a 
large  part  of  Asia  Minor  was  inhabited  by  Ionian 
Greeks.  In  spite  of  this  division  into  small  states,  often 
rivals  and  even  enemies  in  war,  the  Greek  culture  was 
fundamentally  one:  all  Greeks  called  themselves  Hel- 
lenes, and  the  rest  of  the  world  Barbarians,  and  all  the 
states  took  part  in  the  quadrennial  Olympic  games. 
The  Dorians  and  lonians  were  the  leaders  in  the  de- 
velopment of  Greek  art,  and  their  names  have  been 
given  to  the  two  principal  "orders" — originally  distinct 
styles — of  Greek  architecture.1  The  other  two  chief 
constituent  races  of  the  Hellenes  were  the  Achseans  and 
jiEolians. 

Periods  of  Greek  Art  History. 

Between  pre-Homeric  art,  discussed  in  the  last  chap- 

i  For  a  concise  summary  of  the  historical  beginnings  and  race  movements 
of  the  Greeks,  consult  W.  M.  West's  "Ancient  History,"  §§  80-100  (Allyn 
&  Bacon,  Boston). 

91 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

ter,  and  that  of  historic  Greece  there  is  a  noticeable 
hiatus.  Dorpfeld,  it  is  true,  derives  the  Doric  style  of 
architecture  directly  from  the  palace  architecture  of 
Mycenae  and  Tiryns,  but  there  are  grounds  for  ques- 
tioning this  derivation.  In  any  case,  the  ornament  of 
that  age  seems  to  have  died  with  the  civilization  to  which 
it  belonged,  and  historic  Greek  art  differs  in  quality  and 
spirit  as  well  as  in  its  forms  from  that  of  the  ^Egean 
culture. 

Dated  Greek  history  begins  with  the  first  Olympiad, 
776  B.C.  It  is  customary  for  convenience  to  divide  the 
history  of  Greek  art  into  six  periods.  The  first  or 
Archaic  may  be  considered  as  lasting  from  the  first 
Olympiad — or  from  650  B.C.  when  the  earliest  Doric 
temples  known  to  us  were  begun — to  500  B.C.  ( Some 
writers  prefer  to  specify  an  early  and  a  late  Archaic 
Period,  divided  at  550  B.C.  and  lasting  until  480  B.C., 
the  date  of  the  Persian  invasion.)  The  next  or  Tran- 
sitional Period,  beginning  at  500  (or  at  480)  B.C.,  lasts 
until  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century,  and  ushers  in  the 
great  age  of  Greek  art,  commonly  called  the  Periclean, 
which  followed  the  final  victories  over  the  Persians  in 
466  B.C.  This  occupied  the  second  half  or  the  last  two- 
thirds  of  the  fifth  century  B.C.,  and  was  followed  by  the 
Decline  of  the  first  half  of  the  fourth  century.  A  bril- 
liant revival  manifested  itself  during  the  last  half,  which 
constitutes  the  Alexandrian  age.  A  further  decline  en- 
sued, more  rapid  and  complete,  lasting  until  the  Roman 
conquest  in  146  B.C.:  this  we  may  designate  as  the  Post- 
Alexandrian  Period.  But  even  in  its  decline  Greek  art 
produced  many  noble  and  beautiful  works;  while  after 

92 


GREEK  ORNAMENT,  I 

the  Roman  conquest,  Greek  artists  wrought  for  Roman 
masters  and  infused  a  new  artistic  element  into  the 
Roman  taste  and  art ;  so  that  a  complete  sketch  of  Greek 
ornament  must  take  into  account  works  produced  as 
late  even  as  the  time  of  the  Antonines. 

All  these  periods  are  but  vaguely  defined,  for  historic 
Greek  art  was  continuously  progressive;  the  change  of 
style  was  gradual  and  constant.  Hence  they  are  to  be 
considered  merely  as  arbitrary  devices  for  facilitating 
the  grouping  and  classifying  of  the  works  of  different 
times  and  styles,  and  for  marking  certain  well-defined 
stages  of  development. 

Some  General  Characteristics. 

Whereas  in  Egyptian  ornament  color  predominates 
over  form,  it  plays  a  subordinate  part  in  Greek  orna- 
ment, in  which  plastic  form,  as  expressed  and  revealed 
by  outline  and  light  and  shade,  is  the  controlling  element, 
The  Greeks  seem  to  have  been  the  first  people  to  delight 
in  pure  beauty  of  form  and  of  line-movement  apart  from 
symbolism  and  representation,  and  it  was  their  constant 
reaching  out  after  an  ideal  perfection  of  form  that  gave 
to  their  works  their  immortal  freshness  of  beauty  and 
vitality  of  interest. 

The  Greeks  cared  little  for  mere  patterning;  there  is 
no  characteristic  Greek  all-over  ornament.  But  in 
every  work  of  Greek  decoration  the  idea  of  structure  is 
present;  not  necessarily  of  the  structural  framework  of 
the  object  decorated,  though  this  is  generally  recognized; 
but  an  organic  and  logical  relation  between  the  object 
and  its  decoration,  and  between  the  various  parts  of  the 

93 


Fia.]<Z$Oreekand  Assyrian     

n?1S24rt#R*aeUB.tolia\frC         Ornament -Links         fig.&HJaekFhib 


fig  127  Carved  Rmceau  from  Miletus  (Late). 
a         b  c 


/"Zg  A5?.  Varieties  oftfnthemion  Motive 


Fig.158  Elementary  Rinceau  on  Vase 


Fiq.136  Varieties  of  LottibrnJIolfve 


94 


GREEK  ORNAMENT,  I 

decoration.  This  quality  also  appears  in  the  way  in 
which  the  ornament  itself  is  designed  and  its  elements 
put  together;  they  are  never  merely  strung  together; 
they  are  organically  united  into  a  coherent  design 
(Figure  122).  This  structural  quality  is  by  no  means 
confined  to  architectural  ornament,  though  it  is  there 
most  conspicuously  in  evidence ;  it  appears  in  the  paint- 
ing of  a  vase  or  the  composition  of  an  anthemion  band 
as  truly  as  in  the  ornament  of  the  Erechtheion.  Com- 
pare, for  example,  the  monotonous  and  inorganic  string- 
ing together  of  lotuses  and  buds  in  Egyptian  bands,  or 
even  the  stiff  linking  of  Assyrian  forms,  with  the  or- 
ganic structural  combination  of  alternating  motives  in 
the  Greek  anthemion  bands  figured  in  Plate  V  and 
Figure  123. 

Another  unfailing  quality  of  Greek  ornament  is  its 
artistic  restraint.  The  Greek  artist  knew  when  to  hold 
his  hand,  when  to  leave  a  surface  plain,  when  not  to 
elaborate  a  motive  or  pattern. 

These  qualities  of  plastic  beauty,  grace  and  vivacity 
of  rhythmic  movement,  structural  fitness  and  artistic 
reserve,  impart  to  Greek  ornament  a  distinction  which 
sets  it  apart  from  all  other  decorative  styles,  unless  it 
be  that  of  the  early  Gothic  period  in  France. 

The  examples  of  Greek  decorative  art  that  have  come 
down  to  us  consist  chiefly  of  two  classes:  architectural 
ornament,  for  the  most  part  carved,  though  often  en- 
hanced by  added  color;  and  pottery,  for  the  most  part 
painted.  But  so  marked  is  the  architectural  feeling  in 
the  vase  decoration,  that  many  motives  were  carried 
from  pottery  into  the  architecture;  while  not  a  few  of 

95 


FIG.  124.    GEOMETRIC  ELEMENTS. 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

the  architectural  details  were  executed  in  terra-cotta 
and  painted,  much  like  the  vases. 

The  Motives. 

These  constitute  an  alphabet  of  only  moderate  extent. 

The  greatness  of  Greek  orna- 
ment lies  in  the  variety  and 
originality  of  the  combina- 
tions of  these  few  funda- 
mental forms,  and  the  ele- 
gance of  the  results,  rather 
than  in  the  number  of  the 
primary  motives.  So  nearly 
endless  are  the  variations  of 
these,  that  instances  of  exact  reduplication  of  any  orna- 
ment on  different  objects  are  almost  unknown.  Even 
such  forms  as  the  Doric  capital,  or  the  egg-and-dart 
molding,  are  never  exactly  alike  on  two  different  build- 
ings. 

In  framing  any  list  of 
motives,  it  is  difficult  to 
draw  the  line  between  re- 
lated forms  and  to  deter- 
mine when  it  is  proper  to 
distinguish  them  as  really 
separate  motives,  and 
when  not.  With  regard 
to  certain  nature-forms, 
also,  there  may  be  differ- 
ences of  judgment  as  to  whether  they  should  be  ac- 
counted as  ornament  or  as  sculpture  or  painting.  We 

96 


FIG.  125.     NATURE-FORMS. 


GREEK  ORNAMENT,  I 

group  the  motives  listed  below  into  three  groups — 
geometric,  natural  and  structural. 

The  geometric  motives  (omitting  simple  dots,  circles 
and  parallel  lines)  are  six:  the  fret  or  meander;  the 
wave  or  Vitruvian  scroll;  the  spiral,  both  single  and 
branched ;  the  S-curve  or  "  line  of  beauty" ;  the  rosette  2 
and  the  guilloche  (Fig.  24). 

The  principal  natural  forms  are :  the  lotus  and  lotus- 
bud,  the  palmette  or  anihemion,  the  vine,  and  the 
acanthus  leaf,  from  the  vegetable  world  (Fig.  125) ; 
and  from  the  animal  kingdom  human  heads  or  masks, 
heads  of  animals,  paws,  wings,  griffins  or  chimeras  and 
sphinxes  (Plate  VI,  25,  26,  29,  35) .  Festoons  of  flow- 
ers and  fruit  (called  the  "swag"  in  English  books),  ox- 
skulls  (bucrania)  and  fluttering  ribbons  also  occur  in 
late  Greek  art,  usually  on  altars,  with  symbolic  signifi- 
cance. Purely  pictorial 
representations  of  men, 
horses  and  beasts,  whether 
painted  or  carved,  are  ex- 
cluded from  the  list,  as 
belonging  to  pictorial  art 
rather  than  to  pure  orna- 
ment. 

The  chief  architectural 
motives      not      included 
above    are    seven     (Fig. 
126):  moldings;  fluting s  or  channelings;  dentils;  the 
egg-and-dart   and  its   derivatives;   the   bead-and-reel; 

-  The  star  which  occurs  in  rare  instances  may  be  considered  as  a  variant 
of  the  rosette. 

97 


FIG.  126.    ARCHITECTURAL  ELEMENTS. 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

scales  and  imbrications  ( also  used  in  painted  ornament ; 
not  shown  in  the  figure),  and  the  rinceau  ot  branching 
scroll  (Figure  127). 

The  swastika  or  fylfot  has  been  omitted  from  these 
lists,  although  occurring  on  early  vases,  because  it  is 
there  used  rather  as  a  symbol  than  as  a  systematic  orna- 
ment, and  was  early  dropped  from  Greek  art.  The 
guttce  of  the  Doric  order  might  perhaps  be  added,  though 
their  use  is  very  restricted,  and  they  do  not  form  a 
motive  capable  of  variation  and  combination  into  mani- 
fold patterns. 

Of  all  these  motives  three,  the  lotus  (bud  and  blos- 
som), the  palmette,  and  the  egg-and-dart,  are  clearly 
traceable  to  Egyptian  origins.  Four  others,  the  fret, 
guilloche,  rosette  and  wave,  occur  in  Egyptian  orna- 
ment, but  it  cannot  be  proved  that  they  came  into  Greek 
art  from  Egypt,  though  this  may  quite  possibly  be  the 
fact.  The  spiral  has  been  the  common  property  of  all 
decorating  races,  and  it  was  the  Greeks  who  first  dis- 
covered the  real  beauty  of  its  combination  with  the  S- 
curve  and  developed  it  into  the  most  important  single 
contribution  to  the  art  of  pattern-design  made  by  any 
people  since  the  Egyptians  first  discovered  and  exploited 
the  value  of  contrasted  alternation  in  their  lotus-and- 
bud  bands.  In  the  adaptation  of  the  acanthus  leaf  to 
carved  ornament  they  further  increased  the  debt  of  sub- 
sequent ages  to  Greek  art.  The  rinceau  (Figure  127), 
which  is  a  combination  of  the  S-line,  the  spiral,  the  vine- 
motive  and  the  acanthus  leaf,  was  developed  during  the 
Alexandrian  age  into  an  ornament  which  has  contributed 

98 


GREEK  ORNAMENT,  I 

a  most  important  element  to  the  splendor  of  Roman, 
medieval  and  modern  art. 

Pottery  Decoration. 

A  brief  sketch  of  the  historic  development  of  Greek 
pottery  is  essential  for  the  intelligent  discussion  of  its 
decoration. 

The  potter's  art  was  transmitted  from  the  pre- 
Homeric  to  the  post-Homeric  civilization  without  inter- 
ruption, and  practised  in  various  centers  of  which 
Rhodes,  Melos,  Athens,  Corinth,  Ccere  in  Etruria 
(though  the  majority  of  the  vases  found  in  Etruscan 
tombs  were  of  Greek  and  not  local  manufacture),  and 
in  the  post- Alexandrian  period  Apulia  and  Campania 
in  Southern  Italy,  were  the  most  important.  Burnt 
clay,  though  fragile,  is  an  almost  imperishable  material, 
and  tens  of  thousands  of  vases  have  been  preserved  to 
our  day,  for  the  most  part  in  ancient  tombs,  from  as 
far  back  as  the  seventh  century  B.C.,  and  covering 
the  entire  period  from  that  time  to  the  Christian  Era. 
All  these  vessels  were  made  on  the  wheel 3  and  painted, 
chiefly  in  black  and  red.  Very  few  of  these  were 
modeled  in  relief,  notwithstanding  the  Greek  predilec- 
tion for  sculpture.  The  Greek  potters  preferred  the 
simplicity  of  a  pure  and  refined  silhouette  to  the  more 
complex  effects  of  relief-modeling  (Figure  121,  Fig. 
128).  The  same  reserve  was  shown  in  their  long-time 
preference  of  the  simple  black-and-red  decoration,  with 

3  Note  that  the  dates  given  above  exclude  from  consideration  the  archaic 
Mycenaean  and  other  pre-Homeric  pottery,  of  which  some  of  the  earlier 
examples  are  crude  vessels  molded  free-hand  and  not  turned  on  a  wheel. 

99 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

only  occasional  and  sparing  use  of  other  colors,  to  the 
more  showy  effects  possible  with  a  varied  palette,  such 
as  became  fashionable  to  a  limited  degree  in  and  after  the 
Alexandrian  age.  Thus  their  pottery  decoration  was 
in  sober  colors,  while  in  their  architectural  ornament 
they  employed  brilliant  reds,  blues,  green  and  gold. 
This  is  in  striking  contrast  to  the  modern  taste  which 
prefers  sobriety  of  coloring  in  its  architecture  and 
brilliant  tones  for  pottery  and  porcelains. 

Changes  of  Style. 

The  earliest  pottery  was  of  a  light  red  color,  with 
decorations  in  black  and  dark  red  or  brown.  In  the 
sixth  century  B.C.  the  color  of  the  earthenware  of  the 
vases  was  often  a  yellow-red,  nearly  orange,  and  the 
decorations  almost  exclusively  in  black,  while  the  forms 
were  more  refined,  profiled  with  more  subtle  curves 
than  formerly.  In  the  early  fifth  century  or  second 
archaic  period,  the  ware  was  of  a  darker  red,  and  the 
black  slip  employed  in  the  decoration — really  a  black 
paint  covered  with  a  thin  slip  or  glaze — became  very 
perfect  and  was  used  as  a  solid  background,  the  decora- 
tions being  left  of  the  natural  dark  red  of  the  ware. 
This  change  of  technic  led  to  a  complete  change  in  the 
character  of  the  ornament,  as  will  later  be  shown.  Dur- 
ing the  fourth  century  a  further  change  occurred;  the 
ornament  became  complex  and  overcharged,  varied 
colors  were  added  to  the  black  and  red  to  brighten  the 
effect ;  the  vase-profiles  lost  their  earlier  refinement,  and 
modeling  of  figures  and  details  in  relief  became  more  or 
less  common,  especially  in  Apulian  and  other  Italo- 

100 


GREEK  ORNAMENT,  I 

Greek  vases,  which  were  often  of  great  size.     The  art 
declined  rapidly  under  Roman  rule;  as  bronze,  marble, 


FIG.  128.  TYPES  OF  GREEK  VASES:  a,  ARYBALLUS ;  b,  LEKYTHOS;  c,  RHYTON; 
d,  ALABASTROX;  e,  g,  AMPHORA;  /,  KRATEH;  h,  OINTMENT  Box;  i,  HYDRIA; 
k,  KYLIX;  /,  HYDRIA. 

alabaster,  glass,  gold  and  silver  came  more  and  more 
into  use  for  the  finer  vessels,  the  plain  clay  earthenware 
ceased  to  be  a  medium  for  artistic  expression. 

The  grace  and  beauty  of  the  Greek  vases  of  the  6th- 

101 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

4th  centuries  B.C.  are  due,  first  to  the  innate  artistic 
spirit  of  the  people;  and  secondly  to  the  use  of  terra 
cotta  vases  as  gifts  and  prizes.  They  were  regarded  as 
works  of  art,  and  the  painters  who  decorated  them  were 
proud  to  sign  their  works.  The  decoration  of  these 
vases  was  executed  with  a  bold,  free  hand  which  the 
published  illustrations  generally  fail  to  reproduce. 
Special  care  and  attention  were  bestowed  upon  the 
form,  proportions  and  silhouette  of  these  vases,  in  spite 
of  their  humble  material.  A  singular  elegance  of  shape 
characterizes  nearly  all  of  the  Greek  pottery ;  the  profiles 
are  composed  of  exquisitely  subtle  curves  harmoniously 
blended.  The  chief  among  many  types  are  the  amphora, 
a  tall  two-handled  (or  three-handled)  jar  for  wine 

(Fig.  128,  e,  g)\  the 
cenoclioc,  a  large-bodied 
wine- vessel ;  the  hydria  (i,l), 
a  wide-mouthed  water- jar; 
the  lekyihos  (&),  a  small 
slender-necked  vase  for  per- 
fumes or  for  votive  and 
funereal  uses ;  the  somewhat 
similar  aldbastron,  usually 
of  alabaster  (d) ;  the  krater 
(/) ;  a  cup  or  jar  with  a 
spreading  mouth;  the  kylix 
(k),  a  broad,  dish-like  ves- 
sel (these  two  types  merge  into  one  another)  ;  the  rhyton 
(c) ,  a  drinking  horn,  shaped  often  like  an  animal's  head; 
the  aryballos  (a),  and  various  other  forms. 


Fio.  129.    GEOMETRIC  VASE,  SEVRES. 


102 


GREEK  ORNAMENT,  I 


Development  of  Motives. 

In  an  important  group  of  early  archaic  vases  the  deco- 
ration consists  of  successive  bands  alternately  of  orna- 
ment and  pictures  (e.g.,  the  Dodwell  vase,  a  in  Fig. 
128).  Another  group,  in  the  so-called  "geometric" 
style,4  are  adorned  with  bands  of  parallel  lines,  zigzags, 
curious  frets,  concentric  circles,  stars  or  flowers,  swas- 
tikas irregularly  disposed,  and  checkered  patterns 
imitated  from  basketry  or  textiles  (Fig.  129).  In 
others,  mostly  from  the  islands  or  from  Asiatic  Greek 
factories,  Oriental  influences  are  evident ;  lions,  sphinxes 
and  gazelles,  horses  and  the  solar  goose  are  pictured 
upon  them,  and  in  the  ornament  proper  the  lotus  and 
lotus-palmette  are  common  (Fig.  130;  this  may  pos- 
sibly be  a  Rhodian  vase). 

As  the  potter's  art  advances,  the  fret,  wave  and  an- 
themion  are  increasingly  used  and  developed  into  the 
greatest  possible  va- 


riety of  forms.  The 
fret  occurs  in  several 
varying  types ;  the  sim- 
ple fret  as  in  Figure 
131,  a  (page  94),  the 
compound  fret,  formed 
by  two  intersecting 
lines  of  alternate 
"keys"  and  "humps" 
crossing  to  form  a  series  of  swastika  motives  (ib.,  b) ; 
the  resetted  fret  in  which  the  key-motive  alternates  with 

*  Called  also  "Dipylon  style,"  "Dipylon  vases,"  because  of  the  number  of 
vases  in  this  style  exhumed  near  the  Dipylon  gate  in  Athens. 

103 


FIG.  130.    EARLY  VASE;  RHODIAN? 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

a  square  or  round  rosette  (Plate  VI,  5,  9)  ;  the  oblique 
fret,  and  the  double  fret  (Figure  131,  c).  All  these 
were  drawn  free-hand,  usually  in  such  manner  as  to 

make  the  black  stroke  and 
red  background  of  about 
equal  thickness. 

The  spiral  wave  was  not, 


FIG.  132A.  as  hag  been  frequently  as- 

serted, a  representation  of  water,  and  hence  always 
placed  at  the  foot  of  the  vase:  it  was  used  as  a  border 
alike  above  and  below  the  picture  or  vase-painting,  as 
a  variant  of  the  fret,  from  which  it  was  probably  de- 
rived (Plate  VI,  1,  3;  Fig.  132  A)  . 

The  Anthemion. 

The  anthemion  is  the  most  important  and  most  beauti- 
ful of  all  Greek  ornament  motives.  Its  origin  can  be 
clearly  traced  back  through  Phenician  and  Assyrian 
forms  to  the  Egyptian  lotus  and  lotus-palmette.5  Its 
resemblance  to  the  blossoms  of  the  honeysuckle,  recog- 
nized by  the  Greeks  in  its  name  dv0e>iov,  is  a  fortui- 
tous resemblance  or  an  afterthought,  more  noticeable  in 
the  late  examples  than  the  earlier,  and  is  not  an  explana- 
tion of  its  origin.  In  the  Assyrian  lotus-and-palmette 
borders  (see  Plate  IV),  the  units  are  connected  by 
linked  voluted  bands;  the  Greeks  substituted  for  these 
the  double-curved  or  S-scroll  (Figure  123),  introducing 
thereby  a  wholly  new  element  of  grace  and  rhythmic 
movement  into  the  composition  (see  Plates  V  and  VI). 
They  also  curved  the  "petals"  of  the  palmette  in  vari- 

s  For  an  exhaustive  discussion  of  this  derivation,  cf.  Goodyear,  "Grammar 
of  the  Lotus"  (London,  1891). 

104 


GREEK  ORNAMENT,  I 

ous  ways,  elaborated  the  connecting  scrolls,  and  refined 
their  forms  and  combinations  in  an  extraordinary  variety 
of  ways,  creating  out  of  the  somewhat  monotonous  and 
lifeless  Oriental  pal- 
mette  an  entirely  new 
and  exquisitely  beauti- 
ful ornament  (Figs. 
133,  134).  Fig.  134 
represents  diagram- 
matically  a  few  of  the 
principal  types  of 
Greek  anthemion  bands — single  and  double,  opposite 
and  alternate,  vertical  and  oblique;  the  anthemion  open 
as  in  a,  c,  d  or  framed  as  in  &.,  e,  almost  always  alter- 
nating with  a  contrasting  motive  derived  from  the  lotus. 


FIG.    133.    ANTHEMION-    WITH    VOLUTED 
SCROLLS;  FROM  A  VASE. 


FIG.  134.    TYPES  OF  AXTHEMIOX  PATTERNS. 
105 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

which  we  may  call  the  lotiform  motive  (Figure  136). 
Figure  135  illustrates  a  number  of  typical  treatments 
in  detail  of  the  anthemion  proper,  which  springs  from  a 
triangular-shaped  spot  or  nucleus  (or  rarely  a  simple 
dot)  set  between  opposed  spirals  or  volutes.  In  Figure 
136  are  shown  a  few  of  the  variants  of  the  lotiform  mo- 
tive. Very  admirable  is  always  the  skill  with  which  the 
ornament  is  distributed  and  the  spaces  occupied. 

The  change  in  the  fifth  century  from  the  black- 
on-red  to  the  red-on-black  technic  led  to  a  change  in 
the  character  of  the  anthemion  patterns.  To  economize 
the  labor  of  painting-in  the  black  background,  the  spaces 
between  the  leaves  or  other  elements  of  the  design  were 
reduced,  the  ornament  became  more  crowded  and  richer 
in  effect,  and  the  hair-like  lines  of  the  black-on-red  type 
were  omitted  or  replaced  by  broader  lines  of  red  ( Figure 
135,  e).  Some  of  the  anthemion  patterns  of  the  late 
fifth  and  of  the  fourth  centuries  are  remarkably  rich  and 
elaborate;  they  were  made  in  the  later  vases  to  cover 
large  areas  on  the  body  of  the  vase,  taking  the  place  of 
a  picture  on  one  side  of  the  vase,  especially  in  the 
Apulian  pottery  (Plate  V). 

Next  to  the  fret  and  anthemion,  the  vine  is  the  most 
important  motive  in  pottery  decoration  (Figure  137; 
also  Plates  V  and  VI).  It  occurs  sometimes  with  a 
straight  stem,  sometimes  with  a  wavy  stem,  and  may 
represent  in  different  examples  the  laurel,  ivy  or  grape- 
vine. The  laurel  crown  of  victory  in  athletic  and 
literary  contests  is  symbolized  by  the  laurel  "vines"  on 
vases  intended  as  prizes  or  honorary  awards;  while  the 
ivy  and  the  grapevine  were  both  sacred  to  Dionysos, 

106 


GREEK  ORNAMENT,  I 

and  naturally  figured  on  vases  for  wine  as  well  as  on 
those  presented  as  gifts  in  token  of  good  fellowship. 

The  type  of  vine  in  which  a  wavy  stem  throws  out  its 
leaves  alternately  on  either  side  to  fill  the  hollows  of  the 
waves  (Figure  137),  furnished  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant elements  in  the  development  of  the  rinceau.  The 
substitution  of  branching  scrolls  (already  common  as  a 
subordinate  detail  of  certain  anthemion  patterns  in  the 
Periclean  period,  see  Fig.  133)  in  place  of  the  leaves 
and  berries,  produced  the  elementary  rinceau  of  Figure 
138. 

The  Guilloche. 

This  is  found  in  its  simplest  form  in  both  Egyptian 
and  Assyrian  ornament  (see  Fig.  69,  /) ;  but  was  de- 
veloped by  the  Greeks  into  a  richer  band-pattern  by 
doubling  and  even  trebling  the  rows  of  "eyes"  and 
braided  interlacings.  Only  the  simpler  forms  are,  how- 
ever, common  on  pottery  (Figure  132). 

Other  Forms. 

The  "egg-and-dart"  appears  frequently  on  the  lips 
of  vases,  and  both  it  and  other  U-shaped  and  scale-like 
imbrications  (Plate  VI)  are  used  on  the  bodies.  These 
related  forms  are  probably  derived  from  the  lotus-and- 
bud,  as  suggested  in  Fig.  139 ; 6  but  it  is  equally  likely 
that  the  scale-ornament  was  derived  from  the  use  of 
feathers,  scales  in  armor,  or  other  like  industrial  im- 
brications. 

e  This  derivation  was  first  pointed  out  in  "Comptes-rendus  de  la  Socie'te' 
Centrale  d'Architectes"  for  1875,  and  later  elaborated  by  Professor  W.  H. 
Goodyear. 

107 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

Spirals  and  branching  scrolls  are  common  in  the  de- 
tails of  pottery-decoration,  especially  the  spirals  of  the 
wave  or  Vitruvian  scroll;  but  the  branching  scroll  as 


FIG.  139.    EVOLUTION  OF  EGO-AXD-DAHT. 

an  independent  motive  is  never  used  except  in  late 
rinceaux.  The  scrolls  of  anthemion  frames  and  links 
sometimes  branch  twice  or  even  three  times,  as  in  Fig. 
133,  but  never  more  than  this. 

Alexandrian  and  Apulian  Pottery. 

The  Alexandrian  age  brought  in  a  new  taste  for  mag- 
nificence in  all  branches  of  art,  and  the  pottery  of  the 
late  fourth  and  early  third  centuries  reflects  this  changed 
spirit  in  the  excessive  elaboration  of  the  decoration. 
The  coloring  was  enriched  and  varied,  all  parts  of  the 
vase  were  covered  with  pictures  and  ornament,  in  which 
branching  scrolls  played  an  important  part.  Simplicity 
and  grace  of  movement  were  lost  in  the  complexity  of 
multiplied  spirals  and  fantastic  details.  The  potter's 
art  was  developed  in  new  manufacturing  centers  in 
southern  Italy  (Apulia  and  Campania),  which  became 
celebrated  for  the  size  and  splendor  of  the  vases  they 
produced.  The  handles  were  made  especially  impor- 

108 


GREEK  ORNAMENT,  I 

tant,  and  modeled  heads  and  figures  were  often  intro- 

duced into  the  decoration.     Fig.   140  illustrates  one 

of  these  Italo-Greek  vases,  and 

in  Plate  VI  and  Figure  141 

(page  94)   are  shown  some  of 

the    complicated    details    com- 

mon in  this  pottery. 

Architectural  Ceramics. 

Painted  terra-cotta  orna- 
ments were  long  used  on  build- 
ings of  stone  or  wood,  though 
stone  and  marble  displaced 
them  on  the  more  important 
buildings  from  a  very  early 
date.  Moldings,  especially 
crown-moldings  on  cornices, 

„  ,       .  , 

antenxaB,  acrotena  and  ridge- 
tiles  were  the  chief  of  these  ceramic  ornaments.  They 
display  many  of  the  motives  and  patterns  of  pottery- 
decoration,  in  modified  form  and  richer  coloring,  in  which 
green  and  yellow  were  used  as  well  as  red  and  black: 
frets,  anthemions,  the  egg-and-dart,  guilloche  and  scale- 
motive  are  the  commonest  decorations.  Similar  orna- 
ments were  later  painted  on  marble  and  formed  an  im- 
portant element  in  Greek  architectural  ornament. 

Books  Recommended: 

List   follows   next   Chapter. 


FK»-  14°-   APUUAK  VASE; 

SEVRES  MUSEUM. 


109 


CHAPTER  VIII 

GREEK   ORNAMENT,   II 

Architectural  Decoration. 

In  the  application  of  the  arts  of  decoration  to  architec- 
ture, the  Greeks  attained  an  extraordinary  degree  of 
perfection  within  a  comparatively  narrow  field.  The 
artistic  reserve  was  even  more  noticeable  in  their  archi- 
tecture than  in  their  pottery.  Accordingly  we  find  a 
sparing  use  of  ornament  upon  their  buildings,  but  its 
scale  and  distribution  were  determined  by  the  most 
judicious  taste,  and  its  execution  was  as  nearly  perfect 
as  the  artist's  utmost  skill  would  permit.  In  the  Doric 
buildings  the  ornament  proper  is  chiefly  painted  and 
confined  to  certain  well-defined  members — ceiling- 
panels,  moldings,  capitals  and  the  like  (Plate  VI,  32- 
35).  The  most  important  decorative  effects  depended 
not  upon  the  ornament  but  upon  sculpture — pediment 
groups,  metopes  and  friezes.  The  plastic  ornament 
of  Doric  buildings,  as  distinguished  from  the  sculpture 
and  the  painted  details,  consisted  chiefly  of  the  moldings, 
triglyphs,  mutules  and  guttse,  the  antefixse  ranged  along 
the  edge  of  the  cornice,  the  lions'  heads  serving  as  spouts 
at  each  end  of  the  long  horizontal  lateral  cornices, 
acroteria  at  the  angles  of  the  pediments,  and  the  flutings 
and  very  simple  capitals  of  the  columns.  Most  of  these 

no 


GREEK  ORNAMENT,  II 

are  shown  in  the  lower  part  of  Plate  VI.  Of  the  bronze 
gates,  grilles,  lamps  and  other  adjuncts  of  these  build- 
ings we  have  no  remains. 

The  painted  ornament  of  architecture  comprised  (a) 
molding  ornaments  (Figure  142,  page  113) ;  (b)  ceil- 
ing-panels (Fig.  143) ;  (c) 
solid  color  applied  to  tri- 
glyphs  (blue),  metopes 
(red)  (Plate  VI,  33),  and 
sometimes  to  walls  and  pos- 
sibly columns;  (d)  the 
painting  of  the  woodwork 
of  the  interior  ceilings;  (e) 
mural  pictures  on  the  in- 
terior walls.  Of  d  and  e 


FIG.  143.    PAINTED  PANEL,  CEILING 
OP  PLEROMA,  PARTHENON. 


no  remains  are  extant. 
We  do  not  certainly  know 
the  exact  tones  of  the  colors  used  in  a,  b  and  c,  owing  to 
the  faded  condition  of  such  vestiges  of  color  as  still  ex- 
ist. Modern  restorers  usually  represent  them  as  some- 
what brilliant  (Plate  VI,  33-35) :  perhaps  they  were  less 
intense  than  these  representations  would  indicate. 

With  the  development  of  the  Ionic  style  in  the  sixth 
and  fifth  centuries,  carved  ornament  assumed  greater 
importance  and  took  on  increased  richness  and  variety, 
which  reached  the  highest  point  of  splendor  in  the  Alex- 
andrian age,  especially  in  Asia  Minor,  and  gave  birth 
in  the  fourth  century  to  a  variant  form,  the  Corinthian, 
in  which  the  capital  of  the  column  was  the  most  impor- 
tant and  ornate  feature  (Plate  VII,  14).  The  carved 
egg-and-dart  and  "water-leaf"  molding  ornaments 

ill 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

(Figure  144;  Plate  VII,  8,  11),  the  carved  anthemion- 
band  (Figure  121  A),  rosette  and  guilloche,  the  acan- 
thus-leaf and  rinceau,  and  the  splendid  carved  stele- 
heads  of  the  fourth  century  (Plate  VII,  13,  15),  were 
all  important  fruits  of  this  development. 

Style  History. 

The  earliest  architecture  of  "historic"  Greece,  i.e., 
subsequent  to  the  first  Olympiad  (776  B.C.),  was  of  the 
Doric  style.  It  was  characterized  by  massive  columns 
with  16  to  20  shallow  channels  meeting  in  sharp  arrises, 
set  directly  upon  the  stylobate  (the  stepped  platform 
supporting  the  building)  without  bases,  capped  by 
simple  capitals,  and  bearing  an  entablature  consisting 
of  a  plain  architrave,  a  frieze  divided  into  square  panels 
or  metopes  by  triglyphs,  and  a  simple  cornice  with 
mutules  under  the  overhanging  cornice  (Plate  VI, 
33-35;  VII,  6).  A  triangular  pediment  filled  with 
sculpture  framed  between  the  horizontal  and  raking 
cornices,  marked  the  gable-ends  of  the  low-pitched  roof. 
Carved  ornament  was  almost  wholly  lacking.  This 
style  was  employed  for  six  hundred  years  or  more,  vary- 
ing only  in  its  proportions  and  minor  details.  It  reached 
its  culmination  in  the  Parthenon  (438  B.C.),  and  was 
the  style  chiefly  used  for  temple  architecture  in 
European  Greece,  including  Magna  Grsecia  (Southern 
Italy  and  Sicily). 

Towards  the  end  of  the  sixth  century  the  Ionic  style, 
originating  in  Asia  Minor,  began  to  dispute  the  suprem- 
acy of  the  Doric,  and  became  the  dominant  style  in  the 
Greek  cities  of  Asia  Minor.  Its  slender  proportions 

112 


fig.  153aflcanthu3  Moll  is.       RgW  Cawed  Moldings. 


ng.15? 

Acanthus  Sptnosus 


T.    T-f-Wi    MHU\V 


fmjjff.  Corinthian  Capita 


Fig.  149 Branching Scrofland Leaves 


113 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

and  some  of  its  details  betray  the  influence  of  early  pro- 
totypes in  wood.  Its  distinguishing  features  are  the 
slender  columns  adorned  with  twenty-four  flutings 
separated  by  narrow  fillets  and  standing  on  molded 
bases,  bearing  capitals  formed  by  spiral  volutes  con- 
nected by  a  horizontal  band ;  the  doubly  or  triply  banded 
architrave,  unbroken  frieze,  and  cornice  without  mu- 
tules,  often  (especially  in  Asia  Minor)  adorned  with 
dentils  and  invariably  crowned  by  a  cymatium  (Plate 
VII,  9).  As  already  remarked,  carved  ornament  took 
the  place  of  painted  ornament  on  the  moldings  and  on 
other  parts,  although  color  was  still  used  as  a  subordi- 
nate element  to  enhance  the  decorative  effect.  The 
carved  anthemion  was  used  with  fine  effect  both  on  flat 
bands  and  on  the  high  cymatia  of  the  cornices  (Plate 
VII,  5,  11) .  Carved  rosettes,  "cantilevers"  or  brackets 
(Figure  145)  and  other  enrichments  also  occur.  The 
style  reached  its  highest  magnificence  in  such  splendid 
Asiatic  monuments  of  the  fourth  century  as  the  Apollo 
Temple  at  Didyme  near  Miletus,  the  Artemision 
(temple  of  Diana)  at  Ephesus  and  the  Mausoleum  at 
Halicarnassus. 

In  the  variant  form  known  as  the  Corinthian,  which 
was  in  time,  especially  under  the  Romans,  developed  into 
a  distinct  order,  the  column  was  made  still  more 
slender,  and  the  capital,  more  than  a  diameter  in  height, 
was  composed  of  one  or  two  rows  of  acanthus  leaves 
under  coupled  volutes  which  supported  the  corners  or 
horns  of  a  molded  abacus  (Figure  146,  page  113;  Plate 
VII,  12, 14) .  Employed  at  first  only  for  small  decora- 
tive structures  like  the  Choragic  Monument  of  Lysicra- 

114 


GREEK  ORNAMENT,  II 

tes,  it  was  later  applied  to  propylzeas  (Eleusis),  shrines 
or  treasuries  (Epidaurus) ,  and  later  even  to  the  colossal 
temple  of  Zeus  at  Athens  (170  B.C.).  Carved  orna- 
ment was  in  these  buildings  carried  to  the  furthest  limit 
of  elaboration  known  in  Greek  art,  as  in  the  three- 
branched  finial  of  the  Lysicrates  Monument  (330  B.C.), 
shown  in  Plate  VII,  3;  the  capitals  from  Eleusis  (240 
B.C.),  the  rinceaux  on  column-bases  at  Didyme  (Fig. 
127,  page  94),  and  later  under  Roman  rule,  the  frieze 
and  cornice  of  the  Temple  of  Zeus  at  Aizanoi. 

Painted  Details. 

In  the  decoration  of  moldings  with  color,  the  object 
in  view  was  to  emphasize  the  profile  by  means  of  re- 
peated motives  of  the  general  character  of  the  egg-and- 
dart  or  U-motive,  modified  in  outline  to  suit  the  profile 
(Figure  142).  Flat  surfaces,  such  as  the  corona  of  a 
cornice  or  the  edge  of  a  Doric  abacus,  were  often  painted 
with  a  fret,  though  the  wave,  the  guilloche  and  the 
anthemion-band  were  also  often  used,  both  on  terra- 
cotta and  on  marble  (Plate  VI,  28,  32).  'The  an- 
themion  also  figures  in  beautiful  symmetrical  patterns 
in  gold  on  a  blue  ground  in  the  ceiling-panels  or  coffer- 
ings  of  the  pteroma  or  peristyle  of  the  Parthenon  and 
other  buildings  (Fig.  143),  recalling  by  their  grace 
and  freedom  of  line  the  finest  of  the  black-on-red  vase 
decorations.  Acroteria,  antefixas  and  stele-heads  were 
in  the  earlier  examples  painted,  in  the  later  ones  carved ; 
the  anthemion  was  the  almost  exclusive  ornament  used 
on  all  these,  sometimes  combined  with  the  acanthus-leaf 
as  a  subordinate  detail  (Plate  VII,  1,  13,  15). 

115 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

Carved  Details. 

In  nearly  all  the  carved  ornament  we  may  trace  the 
imitation  and  elaboration  of  painted  ornament  derived 
primarily  from  pottery-decoration.  Let  us  first  con- 
sider the  moldings.  Five  chief  motives  occur  in  their 
decoration  by  carving:  the  bead-and-reel  for  small 
bead-moldings;  the  egg-and-dart  on  convex  profiles; 

the  "water-leaf" 
on  cyma-reversa 
moldings ;  the  guil- 
loche  on  torus 
moldings  ( Fig. 
147) ;  and  the  an- 
themion  on  the 
high  Ionic  cyma- 

FIG.  147.    CARVED  TRIPLE  GUILLOCHE  ON  TORUS    tium       Or       CrOWn- 

OP  IOKIC  BASE.  molding.     All  but 

the  first  and  fourth  are  carved  elaborations  of  the 
painted  molding  ornaments  described  above  as  them- 
selves derived  from  pottery-motives,  or  from  pottery 
directly;  the  bead-and-reel  is  an  importation  from  Asia 
Minor  and  may  have  been  derived,  via  Asia  Minor  and 
Persia,  from  the  Egyptian  papyrus-bundle  molding. 
All  these  carved  ornaments  were  designed  and  executed 
with  extraordinary  skill  and  care,  and  their  beauty  and 
perfection  have  seldom  been  approached  and  never  sur- 
passed in  later  ages.  Apart  from  the  beauty  of  their 
decoration,  moreover,  the  Greek  moldings  are  remark- 
able for  the  refinement  of  their  profiles,  composed  of 
curves  as  subtle  and  delicate  as  the  silhouettes  of  the 

116 


GREEK  ORNAMENT,  II 

Greek  vases.  It  was  the  Greeks,  indeed,  who  first  dis- 
covered and  developed  the  artistic  possibilities  of  mold- 
ings in  architecture.  The  unvarying  Egyptian  com- 
bination of  the  bundle-torus  and  cavetto  or  gorge  was 
effective  but  monotonous,  and  neither  in  Assyrian  nor 
in  Persian  architecture  is  there  apparent  any  sense  of 
the  beauty  of  effect  inherent  in  moldings  of  varied  pro- 
file artistically  combined. 

The  Ionic  Capital. 

The  origin  of  this  peculiar  architectural  feature,  with 
its  twin  spiral  volutes  and  lateral  "bolsters,"  set  above 
a  carved  echinus  and  supporting  a  molded  abacus,  has 
been  a  subject  of  much  controversy.1  As  in  so  many 
other  cases,  it  was  probably  the  result  of  convergence 
of  more  than  one  line  of  development.  The  volutes  can 
be  traced  back  to  the  branching  voluted  forms  of  As- 
syrian (see  ante,  Fig.  7)  and  JEgean  art,  and  finally 
to  the  trefoil-lotus  of  Egypt.  This  seems  to  have 
blended  with  reminiscences  of  primitive  "bracket"  caps 
used  on  Asiatic  wooden  columns,  and  a  wooden  origin 
is  further  suggested  by  the  slender  proportions  of  the 
shaft  and  its  setting  on  a  well-marked  base.  The  oblong 
voluted  bracket  cap  was  apparently  combined  with  what 
seems  to  have  been  originally  an  independent  form  of 
capital — a  crown  of  one  or  two  rows  or  rings  of  leaves 
like  "oves,"  clearly  derived  from  nature  and  not  from  the 
egg-and-dart  motive,  toward  which,  however,  it  con- 

i  Cf.  W.  H.  Goodyear,  "Grammar  of  the  Lotus,"  and  his  article  in  the 
"Architectural  Record,"  vol.  Ill,  No.  3,  "The  Lotiform  origin  of  the  Ionic 
Capital."  Also  in  Perrot  and  Chipiez,  "Histoire  de  Part  dans  Pantiquete," 
vol.  VII,  618  seq. 

117 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

verged  to  form  the  carved  echinus  of  the  Ionic  capital. 
One  form  of  this  foliated  capital,  shown  in  Fig.  148, 
is  probably  a  prototype  of  the  high  bell  or  basket  of 

the   later-developed   Corin- 
thian capital. 

The  fully  developed  cap- 
itals of  the  Erechtheion  are 
among  the  most  elegant 
forms  in  classic  architecture, 
and  were  executed  with 

FIG.   148.    CAP  FROM  AEGJE.  ,.  «      ..  n 

extraordinary  perfection  of 

detail.  The  high  necking  adorned  with  a  carved  an- 
themion  is  peculiar  to  this  one  building  (Plate  VII,  7). 

The  Carved  Anthemion. 

This  was,  next  to  the  capitals,  the  most  characteristic 
motive  in  Ionic  decoration.  Its  origin  in  the  anthemion 
bands  of  painted  vases  has  already  been  explained. 
The  technic  of  carving  brought  about  a  number  of 
modifications  of  detail,  such  as  the  ridging  and  furrow- 
ing of  the  stems,  leaves  and  scrolls,  the  elaboration  of 
the  "lotiform"  motive  (Plate  VII,  4),  and  the  intro- 
duction of  the  acanthus  leaf  (or  in  some  cases  apparently 
the  leaf  of  a  thistle  or  aloe)  to  mask  the  junction  of 
fluted  scrolls  where  they  branch  (Figure  149).  The 
most  celebrated  example  of  the  carved  anthemion  is  that 
which  adorned  the  north  and  west  sides  of  the  Erech- 
theion, and  which  is  much  like  that  on  the  neckings  of 
the  columns  (Figure  121  A;  Plate  VII,  11). 

The  commonest  application  of  the  carved  anthemion 
band  was  to  the  high  cymatium  of  the  Ionic  cornices. 

118 


There  are  many  fragments  of  such  carved  cymatia  of 
great  beauty.  One  of  these  on  the  Acropolis  at  Athens 
shows  a  bird  perched  upon  its  scrolls — an  almost  isolated 
instance  in  Greek  art  of  a  purely  naturalistic  represen- 
tation in  the  midst  of  a  bit  of  formal  ornament. 

Another  and  quite  a  different  use  of  the  carved  an- 
themion  is  found  in  carved  marble  antifixae  and  acro- 
teria  which  replaced  the  earlier  painted  terra-cotta 
and  painted  marble.  Plate  VII,  1,  illustrates  a  marble 
antefix  (or  possibly  a  ridge-cresting  unit)  from  the 
Parthenon,  which  may  be  compared  with  Fig.  150, 
a  painted  acroterium  or  antefix  of  terra-cotta,  and  the 
stele-heads  in  Plate  VII. 

Stele-heads. 

Closely  related  to  the  acroteria  and  antefixse  are  the 
stele-heads,  i.e.,  the  upper 
ends  or  finials  of  memorial, 
sepulchral  or  votive  stones. 
Apparently  the  earliest 
sepulchral  steles  wrere 
topped  with  a  gable- 
formed  finish  suggesting 
the  end  of  a  sarcophagus, 
and  adorned  with  a  painted 
anthemion  springing  from 
a  nest  of  acanthus  leaves. 
This  combination  perhaps 
recalled  an  ancient  prac- 
tice of  planting  an  acan- 
thus or  similar  plant 


FIG.     150.    PAINTED     TEBRA-COTTA 
AXTEFIX. 


119 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

(aloe?)  on  the  flat  top  of  a  square  or  round  stele  (Fig- 
ure 151,  page  113) .  With  the  increased  vogue  of  carved 
decoration  the  painted  stele-heads  disappeared  and  the 
carved  type  was  elaborated  into  a  remarkably  beautiful 
design,  especially  in  the  fourth  century,  to  which  belong 
the  fine  examples  in  Plate  VII,  13,  15. 

The  Acanthus. 

The  acanthus  is  a  common  plant  in  Greece  and  Italy, 
related   to    the   common    burdock    (Fig.    152).     The 

variety  known  as  the 
acanthus  spinosus  of- 
fers, by  its  formally 
regular  growth  and  its 
crisp,  crinkly  and 
prickly  leaves,  excel- 
lent suggestions  for 
decorative  convention- 
alization (Figure  153, 
b).  The  date  of  its 
first  appearance  in 
Greek  ornament  is  uncertain;  it  began  to  be  quite  fre- 
quently used,  however,  by  the  latter  part  of  the  fifth 
century  B.  c.,  as  a  covering  leaf  to  mask  the  branching 
scrolls  of  carved  anthemions,  as  in  the  example  from 
the  Erechtheion  (Figure  149).  These  earlier  examples 
suggest  the  thistle  and  the  aloe  quite  as  much  as  the 
acanthus;  but  this  may  be  merely  fortuitous  resem- 
blance. Another  early  example  is  shown  in  Fig.  154, 
probably  the  earliest  type  of  the  Corinthian  capital — 
found  in  the  ruins  of  the  Apollo  temple  at  Phigalaea 

120 


FIG.   152.     ACANTHUS  LEAF    (above) 
BURDOCK  (below). 


GREEK  ORNAMENT,  II 

(Basso?)  in  Attica,  but  now  lost.  With  the  develop- 
ment of  carved  ornament  the  leaf  was  more  and  more 
highly  elaborated,  almost  always  in  association  with 
volutes  or  spiral  scrolls,  chiefly  applied  to  one  or  an- 
other of  four  decorative  uses:  the  anthemion-band,  the 
Corinthian  capital,  carved  stele-heads,  and  the  carved 
rinceau.  The  last  three  were  executed  with  especial 
richness  of  detail  in  the  Alexandrian  age. 

The  Corinthian  Capital. 

This,  the  richest  of  all  capital-types,  developed  only 
gradually  into  the  final  form  which  the  Romans  adopted 


FIG.  154.    EARLY  CORINTHIAN  CAPITAL  FIG.  155.    CAPITAL  FROM  "TOWER  OF 

FROM  BASS-iE.  THE   WlNDS,"   ATHENS. 

and  made  their  own.  Contemporary  with  the  over- 
elaborate  "Lysicrates"  example  in  Plate  VII,  14,  we 
find  the  much  simpler  form  from  the  "Tower  of  the 
Winds"  shown  in  Fig.  155.  A  capital  from  the  Tholos 
of  Epidauros  shows  an  approach  towards  the  later  form 
from  the  Temple  of  Zeus  at  Athens  (Figure  146) ,  which 
dates  from  170  B.C.,  and  furnished  the  prototype  for  the 

121 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

Roman  Corinthian.  In  this,  sixteen  volutes  spring  in 
branching  pairs  from  eight  caulicoli  or  leaf-nests,  to 
meet  in  pairs  under  the  centers  and  corners  respectively 
of  the  hollow-curved  and  molded  abacus,  each  caulicolus 
rising  from  between  two  upright  acanthus  leaves  of  the 
upper  or  second  of  two  rows  of  eight  leaves  each  which 
encircle  the  bell  or  core  of  the  capital.  The  plain  bell- 
type  of  Fig.  155  suggests  a  possible  imitation  of  Egyp- 
tian palm-capitals ;  but  its  late  date  makes  this  explana- 
tion of  its  form  less  probable  than  that  of  derivation  by 
simplification  from  the  more  elaborate  contemporary 
type  of  Epidaurus  or  the  Lysicrates  monument.  Very 
complicated  variations  were  produced  in  Eleusis,  while 
at  Didyme  near  Miletus,  at  Priene,  and  in  some  other 
examples,  piers  or  pilasters  were  capped  with  the  curi- 
ous form  shown  in  Plate  VII,  10. 

The  Greeks  never  developed  any  type  of  modillion 
cornice  for  the  Corinthian  entablature,  which  remained 
essentially  Ionic  in  character. 

The  Rinceau. 

The  foliated  scroll  known  by  this  French  name  does 
not  appear,  at  least  in  carving,  until  the  Alexandrian 
age.  Its  origin  in  painted  ornament  has  already  been 
suggested  (see  ante,  page  98) ;  in  carved  ornament  it 
appears  to  be  an  extension  of  the  branching  scrolls  which 
accompanied  the  anthemion  on  some  Ionic  cymatia,  on 
the  anthemion  band  of  the  Erechtheion  (Plate  VII,  11) 
and  on  the  more  elaborate  types  of  stele-heads  (Fig. 
150;  Plate  VII,  13,  15).  In  these  examples  the  scrolls 
branch  only  twice  or  thrice  in  diminishing  repetitions. 

122 


* 
GREEK  ORNAMENT,  II 


On  the  gable  of  one  of  the  splendid  sarcophagi 
Sidon  in  the  Museum  at  Constantinople,  twin  scrolls 
branch  symmetrically  from  the  center  to  form  not  a 
'subordinate  feature,  but  the  entire  decoration,  of  the 
pediment  (Plate  VII,  1).  The  Choragic  Monument 
of  Lysicrates  was  capped  by  a  superb  finial  of  triple 
branching  and  interlaced  scrolls,  springing  from  three 
scroll-arms  which  spanned  the  flattened  dome  of  the 
roof,  and  supporting  presumably  the  prize  tripod 
awarded  to  the  choir-leader  Lysicrates  (Plate  VII,  3). 
It  was  an  easy  and  natural  step  from  these  to  a  con- 
tinuous line  or  band  of  equal  branching  scrolls,  with  an 
acanthus-leaf  wrapping  and  partially  masking  the 
several  branchings.  The  base  of  one  of  the  colossal 
columns  of  the  Didymseon  near  Miletus  (the  Temple 
of  the  Didymgean  Apollo)  bears  a  superb  carved  rin- 
ceau,  the  earliest  and  almost  the  only  example  of  a  com- 
plete continuous  rinceau  in  Greek  architecture  (Figure 
127,  page  94).  The  Greek  rinceau  generally  lacks  the 
reversed  calyx  or  cup-flower  at  each  branching  that  char- 
acterizes the  Roman  type;  the  acanthus-leaf  is  simple, 
thick  and  rather  flat  ;  the  scrolls  end  in  a  sharp  point  in- 
stead of  a  rosette  or  flower,  and  are  formed  by  deeply 
channeled  bands  and  not  by  round  stems  like  the  Roman. 
It  was  reserved  for  the  Romans  to  develop  and  elaborate 
this  type,  as  will  appear  in  a  later  chapter.  But  al- 
though the  rinceau  as  a  continuous  band-motive  is  rare 
in  Greek  carved  ornament,  it  appears  frequently  as  a 
limited  motive  after  Alexander's  time,  and  several 
elaborate  examples  of  its  use  are  in  the  British  Museum 
from  Eleusis. 

123 


Other  Carved  Motives. 

Carved  scales  representing  tiles  adorned  the  dome- 
like roof  of  the  Monument  of  Lysicrates,  and  the  gabled 
cover  of  the  great  "Alexander"  sarcophagus  (so-called) 
from  Sidon,  now  at  Constantinople.  The  latter  also 
has  a  finely  executed  frieze  of  a  grapevine  with  a  con- 
tinuous waving  stem.  The  carved  fret  appears  occasion- 
ally, as  on  a  marble  funereal  monument  in  the  form  of 
a  vase,  in  Athens.  Lions'  heads  are  carved  to  decorate 
the  spouts  for  discharging  roof-water  through  the 
cymatium,  as  on  the  Parthenon  (Plate  VII,  29,  35) ,  the 
Temple  of  Apollo  at  Delos  and  other  examples.  The 
griffin  was  carved  in  the  round  as  an  acroterium  orna- 
ment, and  in  relief  on  either  side  of  a  central  tree  or 
vertical  motive — an  Oriental  device  already  referred  to 
(see  ante,  page  86).  Beautifully  executed  examples 
of  these  grotesques  or  monsters  adorned  many  of  the 
capitals  of  the  Temple  of  Apollo  at  Didyme.  The  fine 
marble  table-supports  found  in  Pompeii  were  very 
probably  of  Greek  workmanship,  but  will  be  noticed 
later  under  the  head  of  Pompeiian  ornament  (see  page 
186). 

Relation  to  Roman  Ornament. 

Greek  ornament  may  be  said  to  have  finally  passed 
over  into  and  been  absorbed  by  Roman  art.  With  the 
conquest  of  the  Greek  states,  Greek  artists  became  the 
servants  of  Roman  wealth  and  power  with  all  the  Roman 
love  of  magnificence,  and  contributed  greatly  to  the 
decorative  beauty  and  refinement  which  are  so  often 

124 


GREEK  ORNAMENT,  II 

present  in  Roman  works.  In  Asia  Minor  the  Greeks 
retained  in  considerable  measure  their  independence  of 
taste  under  Roman  rule;  the  remarkable  crocket  orna- 
ment from  the  frieze  of  the  Temple  of  Zeus  at  Aizanoi, 
of  the  time  of  the  Antonines,  as  well  as  many  other  de- 
tails of  this  and  other  temples  and  tombs  in  Asia  Minor, 
exhibits  the  Greek  originality  of  design.  The  capitals 
of  pilasters  of  the  Arch  of  Hadrian  at  Athens  (dr. 
120  A.D.)  reveal  something  of  the  same  originality, 
crispness  and  independence  of  the  Imperial  formalism. 
Southern  Italy  and  Sicily  abounded  in  works  and  prod- 
ucts more  Greek  in  style  than  Roman;  and  the  entire 
decorative  system  of  Pompeii,  in  all  its  branches,  dis- 
plays a  Grecian  delicacy,  fancifulness  and  charm, 
which  are  due  either  to  the  employment  of  Greek  artists, 
or  to  the  large  element  of  Greek  blood  in  the  popula- 
tion of  all  Magna  Grsecia.  Doubtless  the  walls  of 
Pompeii  represent  the  last  corruscation  of  the  Greek 
mural  painter's  art,  and  they  are  the  only  examples 
which  have  come  down  to  us. 

Books  Recommended: 

ANDERSON  AND  SPIERS:  Architecture  of  Greece  and  Rome 
(London,  1907). — BAUMEISTER:  Denkmdler  des  klassischen 
Altertums  (Berlin,  1881-89). — BOTTICHER:  Die  Tektonik  der 
Hellenen  (Berlin,  1874-81). — CHIPIEZ:  Histoire  critique  des 
orders  grecs  (Paris,  1876). — DURM:  Antike  Baukunst  (in 
Handbuch  der  Architektur  series,  Darmstadt,  1885). — L.  FEN- 
GER:  Dorische  Polychromie  (Berlin,  1886). — A.  FLASCH:  Die 
Polychromie  der  griechischen  Vaseribttder  (Wiirzburg,  1875). 
— FURTWANGLER  AND  REICHHOLD  :  Griecliisclie  V  asenmalereien 
(Munich,  1900). — J.  I.  HITTORFF:  Restitution  du  Temple 
d'Empedocle  a  Selinonte,  ou  L' Architecture  polychrome  chez  les 
Grecs  (Paris,  1851). — G.  KACHEL:  Kunstgewerbliche  Vorbilder 

125 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

aus  dem  Alterthum  (Karlsruhe,  1881). — A.  MARQUAND:  Greek 
Architecture  (New  York,  1909). — LAU:  Die  griechischen  Vasen 
(Leipzig,  1877). — M.  MEURER:  Die  Ur sprung sformen  des  grie- 
chisclien Akanthusornamentes,  etc.  (Berlin,  1896). — STUART 
AND  REVETT:  Antiquities  of  Athens  (London,  1762);  also 
French  and  German  editions  of  the  same. — TARBELL:  History 
of  Greek  Art  (New  York,  1902). — L.  VULLIAMY:  Examples  of 
Ornamental  Sculpture  in  Architecture  .  .  .  Greece,  Asia  Minor 
and  Italy  (London,  1824). — W.  R.  WARE:  Greek  Ornament 
(Boston,  1878). — J.  C.  WATT:  Examples  of  Greek  and  Pom- 
peiian  Decorative  Work  (London,  1897). — J.  R.  WHEELER 
AND  H.  N.  FOWLER:  Handbook  on  Greek  Archeology  (New 
York,  1909). 


126 


CHAPTER  IX 


The  Roman  Genius. 

With  Roman  ornament  we  enter  upon  a  new  chapter 
of  the  history  of  art.  Roman  art  grew  up  under  condi- 
tions almost  the  opposite  of  those  under  which  Greek 
art  developed.  Instead  of  a  group  of  rival  and  fre- 
quently hostile  states,  allied  only  by  race,  religion  and 
language,  we  have  in  the  case  of  the  Romans  a  single 
state  comprising  peoples  of  many  races,  languages  and 
religions,  welded  together  into  a  powerful  and  highly 
organized  military  empire.  Lacking  the  prevailing 
artistic  and  philosophical  instincts  of  the  Greeks,  the 
Romans  possessed  on  the  other  hand  a  remarkable  genius 
for  organization  and  administration,  and  a  spirit  at  once 
practical  and  progressive.  With  the  growing  wealth 
and  power  which  followed  upon  their  long  career  of 
conquest,  the  Romans  developed,  somewhat  late  in  their 
national  life,  a  taste  for  luxury  and  splendor.  The  arts 
which  flourished  under  the  direction  of  these  tastes  were 
chiefly  of  foreign  origin,  though  they  took  on  in  time  a 
distinctively  Roman  character.  The  Romans  became  a 
nation  of  mighty  builders  and  engineers,  and  architec- 
tural decoration  and  all  the  decorative  arts  that  are 
concerned  with  personal  comfort  and  luxury  were  car- 

127 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 


FIG.  156.    ETRUSCAN  TERRA-COTTA  CRESTING. 

ried  to  a  remarkable,  and  in  some  cases  an  extraordinary, 
degree  of  elaboration  and  splendor.  Sculpture,  on  the 
other  hand,  was  never  a  characteristic  medium  for  the 


FIG.  157.    ETRUSCAN  DETAILS. 
128 


ETRUSCAN  AND  ROMAN  ORNAMENT,  I 

expression  of  the  Roman  genius.  Roman  ornament 
lacked  somewhat  of  the  refine- 
ment and  restraint  of  the  Greek, 
but  was  more  varied  and  more 
flexible.  It  was  eminently 
adapted  to  the  purposes  which  it 
had  to  serve,  and  is  well  worthy 
of  study  for  its  elegance  and 
versatility  of  design. 

Etruscan  Ornament. 


Before  the  conquest  of  the  FIGS.  158  AND  159.  ETKUS- 
Greek  states  introduced  Greek  CAN  TERRA-COTTA  Btm 
art  into  Roman  life,  the  Romans  depended  mainly  upon 
the  Etruscans  for  such  forms  of  art  as  their  modest 
requirements  called  for.  This  singular  people,  whose 
race-origin  and  early  history  are  still  shrouded  in  ob- 
scurity, possessed  an  architecture  of  their  own  betray- 
ing a  certain  remote  kinship  with  the  Greek,  but  crude 
and  undeveloped  artistically.  Their  frequent  use  of 
the  arch,  and  the  character  of  their  ornament,  so  far 
as  it  appears  in  their  works  in  bronze  and  gold,  sug- 
gest an  Asiatic  influence,  chiefly  Phenician,  possibly  via 
Carthage.  Their  ceramic  art,  especially  in  its  later 
phases,  was  based  on  Greek  models.  The  Campana 
collection  of  terra-cotta  reliefs  in  the  Louvre,  belonging 
to  the  first  century  B.C.,  show  much  technical  cleverness 
in  adapting  Greek  pictorial  subjects,  and  even  the 
painted  scroll  ornaments  on  late  Greek  and  Campanian 
vases,  to  modeling  in  relief.  The  ornamental  borders 

129 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 


FIG.  160.    DETAIL  OF  A  PILASTER. 

of  these  reliefs  retain  a  curiously  Asiatic  character  (Fig. 
159).  In  Figs.  156-160  a  number  of  typical  Etrus- 
can forms  are  shown.  Painted  terra-cotta  ornaments, 
such  as  were  used  on  the  wooden  superstructures  of 
their  temples,  are  preserved  in  the  museums  of  Italy; 
they  strongly  resemble  others  found  in  Pompeii  and 
southern  Italy,  which  are  very  likely  of  Etruscan  work- 
manship. These  represent  the  highest  development  of 
Etruscan  architectural  decoration,  but  plainly  exhibit 
their  Greek  derivation.  The  cap  shown  in  Fig.  161 
illustrates  the  crudity  of  native  Etruscan  details  and 

130 


ETRUSCAN  AND  ROMAN  ORNAMENT,  I 

strongly  suggests  a 
Phenician  or  Ori- 
ental influence. 

The  Etruscans 
were  skilful  bronze- 
founders,  and  ap- 
pear to  have  prac- 
tised also  at  an 
early  period  the  art 


FIG.  161.    ETRUSCAN  PILASTER  CAP. 

of  spheirelaton  or  sheet-metal 
hammered  into  relief  on  a  base  of 
carved  wood.  The  fine  bronze 
chariot  in  the  Metropolitan  Mu- 
seum at  New  York  appears  to  be 
a  product  of  Etruscan  work  of 
this  sort  of  the  seventh  century 
B.C. 

Etruscan  jewelry  and  filigree 
were  often  of  great  beauty — 
brooches,  pendants,  chains,  etc., 
of  gold  sometimes  set  with  gems. 
Some  of  it  is  possibly,  however, 
of  Greek  manufacture  (Fig. 
162). 

The  pottery  of  Etruria  was  un- 
important compared  with  that  of 
Greece.  The  most  interesting  of 
its  products  were  black  vases 

131 


FIG.  162. 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

modeled  in  relief  (bucchero  nero),  but  these  display  lit- 
tle pure  ornament  except  flutings  on  the  body.  It  ap- 
pears to  have  no  relations  with  the  prehistoric  black 
pottery  of  the  so-called  Terramare  and  Villanova  pe- 
riods. 

The  Greek  Conquests. 

The  conquest  and  absorption  of  the  Greek  colonies 
in  southern  Italy  and  Sicily  in  the  late  third  century  B.C., 
and  of  the  states  of  Greece  proper,  ending,  with  the  fall 
of  Corinth  (146  B.C.),  in  the  establishment  of  the  Greek 
province  of  Achaia,  not  only  made  the  Roman  cam- 
paigners familiar  with  the  marble  magnificence  of  the 
Greek  cities  and  the  beauty  of  Greek  art,  but  brought 
to  Rome  itself  countless  treasures  of  that  art  and  hosts 
of  Greek  artists  and  artisans.  Roman  architecture  un- 
derwent a  gradual  transformation,  which  accompanied 
and  expressed  the  change  in  the  Roman  taste.  Mum- 
mius,  the  conqueror  of  Corinth,  was  in  all  matters  of  art  a 
boorish  ignoramus ;  Sulla,  who  sixty  years  later  captured 
Athens  in  the  course  of  his  final  campaign  against 
Mithridates,  was  a  cultivated  admirer  of  literature  and 
art.  As  a  result  of  this  process  of  education  and  growth 
in  refinement  of  taste,  the  Etruscan  city  of  Rome,  built 
of  brick,  terra-cotta  and  timber,  was  transformed  into 
a  Greco-Roman  city  of  stone  and  marble.  The  Greek 
orders,  radically  modified  in  detail,  were  adapted  to  new 
uses,  in  combination  with  Etruscan  forms  of  column 
and  Etruscan  types  of  plan  and  the  Etruscan  arch  and 
Asiatic  vault,  and  entirely  new  decorative  forms  and 
effects  devised  in  connection  with  new  constructive  ma- 

132 


ETRUSCAN  AND  ROMAN  ORNAMENT,  I 

terials  and  processes.  Sculpture,  mostly  by  Greek 
artists,  received  new  decorative  applications ;  the  arts  of 
the  bronze-founder,  the  modeler  in  stucco  and  the  mural 
painter  were  developed  rapidly  to  a  high  pitch  of  excel- 
lence ;  and  the  modest  alphabet  of  Greek  ornament-forms 
was  expanded  into  a  remarkably  rich  and  varied  system 
of  decorative  devices.  In  all  these  arts  it  is  not  always 
possible  to  distinguish  between  true  Greek  handiwork 
and  that  of  the  Roman  imitators,  who  were  probably  in 
many  cases  Etruscan  by  race. 

The  Decorative  System. 

The  Romans  created  for  architecture  wholly  new 
requirements,  applications  and  uses.  To  meet  these 
they  devised  equally  new  methods  and  processes  of  con- 
struction, employing  combinations  of  brick,  rubble, 
cement,  concrete,  stone  and  marble  never  known  before. 
The  Roman  genius  for  organization  and  system  asserted 
itself  in  the  erection,  by  means  of  the  vast  armies  of 
unskilled  labor  at  their  disposal,  of  ingenious  and  stu- 
pendous structures,  massively  built  of  coarse  materials, 
and  producing  novel  effects  of  scale  and  grandeur  made 
possible  for  the  first  time  by  the  use  of  the  arch  and 
vault.  This  massive  construction  of  coarse  materials  re- 
quired a  decorative  skin  or  dress,  both  internally  and  ex- 
ternally, of  finer  material,  such  as  stucco,  mosaic,  marble 
wainscot  or  veneer,  or  facings  of  cut  stone,  with  mold- 
ings, panels,  friezes,  cornices,  carving,  sculpture  and  the 
like,  besides  such  structural  features  and  adjuncts  as 
columns,  porticoes  and  porches,  which  must  be  wholly 
made  of  the  finer  materials.  This  system  was  funda- 

133 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

mentally  different  from  that  of  Egyptian  or  Greek  ar- 
chitecture, in  which  stone  or  marble  was  the  only  ma- 
terial, and  temples  the  chief  subjects  of  architectural 
design.  In  these  the  decoration,  other  than  painting 
and  free  sculpture,  was  of  necessity  an  integral  part  of 
the  construction,  or  at  least  incorporated  in  it  or  exe- 
cuted directly  upon  it.  With  the  Roman  system,  a 
large  part  of  the  ornament  was,  equally  of  necessity,  ap- 


Fio.  163.     TEPIDARIUM,  BATHS  OF  CARACALLA. 

plied  ornament,  executed  after  the  completion  of  the 
massive  structural  frame  or  core  of  the  building  (Fig. 
163) .  This  is  the  system  which  has  prevailed,  and  must 
prevail,  in  all  styles  and  in  all  regions  in  which  the  chief 
building-materials  are  coarse  or  undecorative  in  them- 
selves, or  in  which,  even  where  stone  and  marble  abound, 
the  exigencies  of  building  require  the  use  of  the  com- 
moner and  coarser  materials  for  the  main  fabric  of  the 
edifice.  It  is  the  system  in  general  use  in  modern  prac- 
tice, and  is  entirely  reasonable  and  artistically  proper, 
in  spite  of  the  objections  raised  against  it  by  certain 

134 


ETRUSCAN  AND  ROMAN  ORNAMENT,  I 

critics  who  assail  it  as  "false"  and  "illogical,"  because 
the  construction  is  not  identical  with  the  decoration  but 
is  concealed  by  it.  But  solid  masonry  of  cut  stone  or 
of  brick  and  terra-cotta,  and  in  some  cases  wooden  or 
steel  construction,  afford  the  only  opportunities  for  the 
Greek  or  Gothic  system  in  which  construction  and 
decoration  are,  or  may  be  made,  inseparable;  and  even 
with  these  the  interior  must  in  most  cases  be  concealed 
by  plaster,  wainscot,  tiles,  ceilings  and  the  like.  The 
analogy  of  the  skin  of  human  beings  and  animals  affords 
a  justification  from  Nature,  of  the  Roman,  Byzan- 
tine and  modern  system,  in  its  decorative  concealment 
of  the  internal  organism  and  construction,  revealing  only 
the  general  masses  of  the  structure. 

By  the  Roman  system,  the  unskilled  labor  of  hordes 
of  slaves,  soldiers  and  peasants  could  be  turned  to 
account  in  the  heavier  work  of  construction,  and  great 
numbers  of  vast  buildings  be  erected  with  comparative 
rapidity,  leaving  the  decorative  work  to  be  later  executed 
by  artists  and  artisans,  upon  this  structural  core.  The 
Roman  genius  for  organization  and  adaptation,  guiding 
and  directing  these  artists,  who  were  chiefly  foreigners, 
at  least  in  the  earlier  periods,  developed  new  forms  of 
decoration,  in  which  conventional  ornament  took  the 
place  of  figure  sculpture. 

The  principal  types  of  decorative  work  thus  developed 
were:  (1)  the  decorative  use  of  architectural  features, 
such  as  columns,  entablatures,  pediments,  moldings, 
panels  and  ceiling-coffers;  (2)  carved  ornament  in  ex- 
traordinary variety;  (3)  figure-sculpture,  such  as  groups 
in  pediments,  free  statues  on  columns  or  entablatures  in 

135 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

certain  classes  of  structures,  and  reliefs  in  panels, 
spandrels  and  other  defined  spaces;  (4)  the  chromatic 
effects  of  colored  marbles  and  granites  in  columns, 

wainscoting  and 
pavements;  (5) 
mosaic  of  glass  or 
marble  in  floors  and 
ceilings;  (6)  stucco- 
relief  in  delicate 
patterns,  often  com- 
bined with  (7) 
mural  painting  in 
brilliant  colors,  and 
(8)  bronze  work  on 
ceilings,  in  grilles 
and  doors,  and  in 
decorative  adjuncts 
like  tripods  and 
candelabra. 

Architectural 
Features. 

FIG.  164.  ROMAN  ARCH  (ARCH  OF  TITUS).  The  remarkable 
variety  of  the  Roman  buildings  and  structural  devices 
lent  itself  to  a  corresponding  variety  of  decorative  ef- 
fects in  which  the  purely  decorative  use  of  various 
structural  features  played  a  prominent  part.  Pilas- 
ters and  engaged  columns  with  their  entablatures,  pedi- 
ments over  doors,  windows  and  niches,  recessed  arches 
and  deep  ceiling-panels  were  the  chief  elements  of 
this  pseudo-structural  decoration.  The  combination 

136 


ETRUSCAN  AND  ROMAN  ORNAMENT,  I 

of  the  arch — adorned  with  its  archivolt  and  keystone 
— with  engaged  columns  carrying  entablatures  (Fig. 
164)  was  the  most  important  of  these  decorative  de- 
vices, and  has  been  in  more  or  less  constant  use  ever 
since  Roman  times.  In  the  later  Imperial  age,  and 
particularly  in  the  provinces,  as  at  Spalato  in  Dalmatia 


FIG.  165.    NICHE-CAP,  BAALBEK. 

and  in  Syria  at  Baalbek  and  Palmyra,  there  was,  under 
the  Antonines  and  later  emperors,  a  remarkable  increase 
in  the  variety  of  these  decorative  applications  of  archi- 
tectural features.  Curved  and  broken  pediments, 
colonnettes  on  brackets,  spirally  fluted  columns,  and 
niches  with  shell  hoods  are  among  the  features  most 
widely  used.  Some  of  these  works  have  a  singularly 
modern  look,  as  if  of  the  Palladian  Renaissance,  which, 
indeed,  independently  re-invented  many  of  these  devices 
thirteen  hundred  years  later  *  (Fig.  165) . 

i  This  use  of  structural  forms  as  mere  decoration  has  been  condemned 
as  "sham"  and  "false"  design  by  certain  purist  critics,  who  contrast  it  un~ 
favorably  with  the  "truthful"  architecture  of  the  Greek  and  Gothic  builders. 

137 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

Conventional  Ornament. 

In  developing  the  details  of  this  system  the  Romans 
were  obliged  to  employ  Greek  artists  and  to  begin  with 
Greek  models  for  the  most  part.  The  Greek  orders,  the 
Greek  fret  and  anthemion,  molding-ornaments,  rosette, 
acanthus-leaf  and  rinceau,  were  appropriated,  but  not 
without  radical  modifications.  With  such  stupendous 


//V 


FIG.  166.     FRAGMENT  FROM  TEMPLE  OF  VESPASIAN,  IN  VILLA  ALDOBRANDINI. 

aggregations  of  buildings  as  the  Romans  raised  in  their 
cities  both  in  Italy  and  abroad — structures  often  many- 
storied  and  of  vast  dimensions — figure-sculpture  was 
out  of  the  question  as  the  chief  decoration,  not  so  much 
on  account  of  its  enormous  cost  as  because  it  would  have 
been  wasted  and  ineffective.  Carved  conventional 
ornament,  on  the  other  hand,  with  its  repeated  units, 
(Fig.  166)  enriches  such  buildings  without  requiring 

But  even  in  Greek  architecture  there  are  analogous  "shams,"  like  the 
pseudo-structural  paneling  of  the  Greek  pteroma-ceilings,  while  the  useless 
false  gables  and  the  rich  wall-traceries  of  Gothic  art  are  perfect  examples 
of  the  purely  ornamental  use  of  forms  primarily  structural.  The  fact  is 
that  in  all  advanced  stages  of  art  the  structural  forms  of  earlier  stages  have 
been  similarly  turned  to  decorative  account. 

138 


ETRUSCAN  AND  ROMAN  ORNAMENT,  I 

that  semi-isolation  and  that  nearness  to  the  eye  which 
are  essential  for  the  best  effect  of  figure  sculpture. 
Plastic  ornament  was  carried  by  the  Romans  to  the 
highest  perfection  of  appropriate  design,  of  rich  effect, 
and  often  of  exquisite  execution.  Moldings  were 
combined  and  profiled  with  the  greatest  care,  though 
the  profiles  were  generally  less  subtile  than  those  of  the 
Greek  moldings.  In  monumental  buildings  nearly  all 


FIG.  167.     ROMAN  MOLDINGS. 

a,  SIMPLE  WATER  LEAF;  b,  ENRICHED  WATER  LEAF;  c,  d,  ACANTHUS 
LEAF  ENRICHMENTS. 

the  moldings  were  enriched  by  carving,  the  ornamenta- 
tion being  more  elaborate  than  in  the  Greek  prototypes 
— sometimes,  indeed,  too  minute  for  the  best  effect,  but 
almost  always  appropriate  and  beautiful  (Fig.  167). 
The  general  effect  of  all  this  decoration  was  one  of 
great  dignity  and  splendor.  The  striving  for  magnifi- 
cence sometimes  led  to  offenses  against  good  taste,  and 
the  execution  is  occasionally  coarse,  but  such  offenses 
are  rare, .  and  beauty,  refinement,  delicacy  and  charm 
frequently  characterize  even  the  grandest  works. 

139 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

The  Orders. 

The  most  conspicuous  adornment  of  Roman  buildings 
was  effected  by  the  use  of  columns  and  pilasters  with 
their  entablatures,  in  one  or  more  of  the  so-called  "Five 
Orders" — the  Tuscan,  Doric,  Ionic,  Corinthian  and 
Composite  (Plate  VIII).  In  reality  there  are  but 


FIG.  168.    ROMAN  IONIC  CAPITALS. 

three,  the  Tuscan  and  Doric  being  mere  variants  of 
one  type  and  the  Composite  and  Corinthian  of  another. 
Upon  their  so-called  Doric  column,  which  was  really 
an  enriched  and  refined  form  of  the  Etruscan  ( Tuscan ) 
column,  the  Romans  placed  an  entablature  derived  from 
that  of  the  Greek  Doric  order,  with  its  triglyphs  and 
mutules.  The  Ionic  was  but  slightly  varied  from  the 
Greek  Ionic  type  of  Asia  Minor.  The  capital  occurs 
in  two  forms :  one  following  the  Greek  model,  but  with 
a  straight  band  between  the  volutes,  on  the  front  and 

140 


ETRUSCAN  AND  ROMAN  ORNAMENT,  I 

rear  faces,  instead  of  a  depressed  curved  band  (see 
Plate  VIII,  3) ;  and  the  other  with  four  double  volutes 
at  the  angles  of  the  abacus,  in  order  to  make  the  four 
faces  of  the  capital  alike;  this  is  sometimes  called 
erroneously  the  "Scamozzi  Ionic"  (Fig.  168).  The 
Corinthian,  an  elaboration  of  the  Greek  Corinthian  but 


FIG.  169.    CORINTHIAN  CAPITAL,  TEMPLE  OF  MAES 
ULTOR. 

with  a  special  type  of  cornice,  is  the  really  distinctive 
Roman  order.  With  the  Greeks  it  had  been  a  mere 
variant  of  the  Ionic;  the  Romans  developed  its  capital 
into  a  type  generally  recognized  as  one  of  the  most  beau- 
tiful ever  devised.  In  its  most  perfect  examples,  as  in 
that  of  the  Pantheon,  the  Temple  of  Castor  and  Pollux 
and  the  Temple  of  Faustina,  it  consists  of  two  rows  of 
erect  acanthus-leaves  surrounding  and  concealing  the 
lower  two-thirds  of  a  bell-shaped  core  on  which  rests  a 

141 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

molded  abacus  with  concave  sides.  The  upper  part  is 
concealed  by  sixteen  spiral  volutes  which  spring  in 
branching  pairs  from  eight  caulicoli  or  leaf-nests,  set 
between  the  eight  leaves  of  the  upper  row.  These 
volutes  meet  in  eight  pairs  under  the  four  corners  of  the 
abacus  and  under  rosettes  at  the  centers  of  its  four  sides 
(Fig.  169,  Figure  174;  Plate  VIII,  4,  6) .  The  details 
of  this  type  are  endlessly  varied;  in  late  examples  ani- 
mals and  human  figures  sometimes  take  the  place  of  the 


FIG.  172.    MODILLKW. 

corner  volutes.  The  Composite  capital,  having  volutes 
only  at  the  angles,  and  larger  than  in  the  Corinthian, 
may  be  considered  an  inferior  variant  of  the  Corinthian, 
though  sometimes  very  splendidly  carved  (Plate  VIII, 
2,  7;  Figure  170) .  It  somewhat  resembles  a  four-faced 
Ionic  capital  placed  upon  the  lower  part  of  a  Corinthian 
capital.  Pilaster  caps  show  a  greater  variety  of  design 
than  capitals  of  columns  (Plate  VIII,  8;  Figure  171). 
To  these  improvements  upon  the  Greek  order  they 
added  that  of  a  special  type  of  base,  an  elaboration  of 
the  Attic  base,  consisting  of  two  tori  separated  by  two 

142 


3 


FIG.  170. — COMPOSITE  CAPITAL  (LATERAN  MUSEUM,  ROME) 


Fia.  173. — RESTORATION  OF  CORNICE,  BASILICA  /EMILIA  (FROM  DRAWING  BY  R.  H. 

SMYTHE) 


145 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

scotias  and  a  single  or  double  bead.  In  late  examples 
these  moldings  were  all  carved,  reproducing  at  the  base 
something  of  the  elaborate  richness  of  the  capital  (Plate 
VIII,  9,  10,  11). 

But  the  Romans  not  only  perfected  the  Greek  Corin- 
thian capital  and  base ;  they  developed  also  a  new  type 
of  cornice  which  completed  the  Corinthian  as  a  distinct 
order  (Figure  174,  page  151).  This  was  accomplished 
by  the  simple  but  epoch-making  device  of  introducing 
modillion  brackets  beneath  the  corona  and  above  the  bed- 
mold  of  the  typical  Ionic  cornice.  The  modillion 
(Fig.  172)  was  a  completely  new  architectural  in- 
vention. The  recently  excavated  fragments  of  the 
Basilica  Emilia  (86  B.C.)  show  a  primitive  form  com- 
posed of  a  mutule  decorated  on  the  under  side  with  a 
reversed  scroll  (Figure  173).2  The  modillion  of  the 
Maison  Carree  at  Nimes  (4  A.D.)  somewhat  resem- 
bles this  type;  the  more  perfect  type  is  shown  in 
Plate  VIII,  4. 

Variety  in  the  Roman  Orders. 

It  is  frequently  asserted  that  the  Romans  reduced 
their  Orders  to  a  purely  mechanical  system  of  mathe- 
matically formulated  dimensions  for  each  part.  This 
assertion  springs  from  a  blind  acceptance  of  the  rules 
laid  down  by  Vitruvius  (or  of  the  later  formulae  of 
Vignola  and  other  Italian  Renaissance  writers)  as  if 
they  represented  the  actual  historic  practice  of  the 
Romans.  In  reality  nothing  could  well  be  further  from 
the  truth.  There  are  no  two  examples  of  any  of  the 

2  Tliis  appears  to  have  been  used  over  an  Ionic  order. 

146 


ETRUSCAN  AND  ROMAN  ORNAMENT,  I 

orders  from  different  buildings  that  are  alike,  either  in 
general  proportions  or  details.  The  Roman  Doric  is 
at  least  as  varied  as  the  Greek  Doric,  and  the  variety 
in  Corinthian  capitals  and  entablatures  is  simply  aston- 
ishing. There  was,  no  doubt,  throughout  the  Imperial 
age  a  tendency  towards  uniformity  in  certain  general 
features  and  proportions,  but  this  never  hardened  into 
cast-iron  formulae,  and  the  beauty  and  vitality  of  Roman 
ornament  are  largely  due  to  the  variety  and  individual- 
ity of  the  designs  of  different  buildings,  and  of  different 
times  and  places. 

Decorative  Uses  of  the  Orders. 

In  Roman  architecture  columns  were  not  only  used 
for  their  original  function  as  true  structural  supports 
in  porticoes  and  colonnades,  but  also,  with  their  entab- 
latures, for  decorative  purposes,  by  engaging  them  in 
the  walls,  which  were  thus  architectually  divided  into 
bays  and  stories.  In  arcaded  structures  the  columns, 
apparently  engaged  into  the  piers  between  the  arches, 
were  in  reality  parts  of  the  piers  themselves,  acting  to 
that  extent  as  buttresses;  but  their  chief  function  in 
such  buildings  was  esthetic,  not  structural.  They  were 
expressive  as  well  as  decorative,  emphasizing  to  the  eye 
the  lines  of  vertical  support  and  of  concentrated  thrust 
of  the  building,  while  indicating  externally  the  internal 
structural  divisions.  At  the  same  time  they  broke  the 
surface  of  the  edifice  into  rectangular  panels  or  units, 
outlined  by  strong  lights  and  shades,  in  which  the  arches 
were  effectively  framed. 

The  Romans  also  invented  the  pilaster,  a  flattened 

147 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

replica  of  the  column,  used  as  a  wall-decoration,  and 
as  a  respond  behind  free-standing  columns,  as  in  tri- 
umphal arches  and  forum  walls.  Over  columns  so 
placed  in  front  of  pilasters  the  entablature  was  made  to 
project  in  a  salient  block,  while  between  the  columns 
it  was  set  back  nearly  to  the  wall-face,  thus  producing 
the  much  criticized  ressaut  or  "broken  entablature." 
When  this  projecting  block  and  the  column  below  it 
together  serve  as  a  pedestal  for  a  statue,  as  in  the  Arch 
of  Constantine  (Figure  175),  they  serve  at  least  a  real 
esthetic  function.  In  other  cases  the  order  thus  used 
becomes  a  purely  factitious  decoration,  unexplained  to 
the  eye,  as  it  supports  nothing  even  in  appearance. 

The  shafts  of  columns  and  of  pilasters  were  sometimes 
fluted,  sometimes  smooth.  When  monolithic  shafts  of 
polished  granite  or  marble  were  used,  as  was  general  in 
the  later  Imperial  age,  the  decorative  splendor  of  the 
colored  material  took  the  place  of  enrichment  by  fluting, 
as  a  characteristic  Roman  practice. 

The  use  of  pedestals,  by  means  of  which  an  order  of 
smaller-scaled  parts  could  be  used  for  a  given  height  of 
story,  was  another  distinctively  Roman  device  to  add  to 
the  flexibility  of  the  Orders  (Figure  175). 

Books  Recommended: 
See  List  at  end  of  Chapter  X. 


148 


B    a 


a  2 

*r  * 

a 

'.     Q 
•fl     O 


2   3 


CHAPTER  X 

ROMAN  ORNAMENT,  II 

Carved  Ornament. 

In  this  field  Roman  art  surpassed  all  previous  styles 
in  the  variety  and  splendor  of  its  achievements,  and 
originated  types  which  have  persisted  through  all  the 
centuries  since.  The  beauty  of  the  Corinthian  capital 
and  entablature  has  already  been  alluded  to,  as  well 
as  the  richness  of  the  Roman  carved  moldings.  Roman 


FIG.  176.    TYPICAL  ACANTHUS  LEAVES. 

friezes,  bands  and  panels  were  adorned  with  a  like  rich- 
ness of  conventional  carving.  Practically  the  whole  of 
this  ornament  was  based  on  Greek  prototypes — the  an- 

151 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 


themion  and  rinceau  supplying  the  motives  for  the 
greater  part  of  it.  If  we  add  to  these  the  rosette, 
festoon  or  garland,1  and  the  use  of  symbolic  and 
grotesque  forms,  and  note  that  the  acanthus-leaf  in  an 
endless  variety  of  modifications,  was  worked  into  every 
possible  detail,  we  have  the  key  to  the  greater  part  of 
this  ornament.  But  with  these  few  fundamental 
motives  the  Roman  artists  developed  a  quantity  and 
variety  of  designs  which  for  richness  and  appropriate- 
ness of  effect  and  extraordinary  flexibility  of  application 
have  never  been  surpassed.  Some  of  it  is  heavy  and 
over-wrought;  but  the  beauty  and  refinement  of  the 
great  majority  of  examples  entitle  them  to  high  praise. 

The  Acanthus. 

This  constitutes  a  type  rather  than  a  particular  form 
of  leaf.  As  compared  with  the 
Greek  type,  it  is  less  massive,  less 
pointed,  more  minutely  modeled; 
it  suggests  a  larger,  thinner,  more 
flexible  and  more  complex  leaf, 
with  well-developed  "eyes"  at  the 
bases  of  the  lobes  and  "pipes"  or 
ribs  curving  from  these  to  the  base 
of  the  leaf  (Fig.  176) .  The  stand- 
ing leaves  in  the  figure  may  be 
compared  with  the  natural  acan- 
thus mollis  in  Figure  153,  a  (p. 
113).  There  are  many  leaves  in 
nature  which  are  divided  in  much 


Fio.  177.    TYPES  OF 
ACAXTHCS. 


i  Or  "swag,"  as  it  is  often  called  by  English  writers. 

152 


ROMAN  ORNAMENT,  II 

the  same  way,  and  the  Romans  varied  the  carved  type 
almost  ad  infinitum,  so  that  it  recalls  various  leaves,  and 
modern  writers  have  given  them  fanciful  names  accord- 
ingly— the  "olive,"  "palm,"  etc. — though  in  each  case 
we  have  a  purely  conventional  variation  of  the  type. 
Fig.  177  shows  a  few  of  these  variants. 

The  acanthus  was  used  (a)  as  a  standing  leaf  in 
capitals  and  on  some  moldings;  (b)  as  a  molding  orna- 
ment (Fig.  167,  c,  d) ;  (c)  as  a  nest  or  bunch  of  leaves 
from  which  to  start  a  rinceau  (Plate  IX,  1,  10,  12;  Fig- 
ure 178,  Fig.  179) ;  (d)  as  a  caulicolus  or  wrapping- 
leaf  to  mask  the  branching  of  the  scrolls  (Plate  IX,  10; 
Figs.  166,  179) ;  (e)  as  an  ornament  around  the 
stems  of  candelabra  and  the  bellies  of  vases  (Plate  X, 
13;  Fig.  180) ;  (f)  as  a  conventional  plant  to  alter- 
nate with  or  replace  the  anthemion  (Plate  IX,  8),  and 
(g)  to  form  the  petals  of  a  rosette  (Fig.  181;  Plate 
IX,  9).  All  these  applications  may  be  studied  in 
Plates  VIII,  IX  and  X. 

The  Rinceau. 

The  origin  and  development  of  the  rinceau  have  al- 
ready been  traced  in  Greek  ornament  (pages  000). 
The  Roman  version  of  it  became  the  most  important  of 
all  Roman  motives,  and  has  been  perhaps  the  most  pro- 
lific of  all  historic  ornament-forms  except  the  lotus.  A 
round  stem,  springing  from  a  nest  of  acanthus-leaves 
(Figs.  166,  179,  182),  branches  into  scrolls  alternately 
winding  upon  one  and  the  other  side,  each  terminating, 
not  in  a  point  as  in  the  Greek  type,  but  in  an  elaborate 
flower  or  bunch  of  leaves  (Figure  181,  page  143) .  Each 

153 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

branching  is  concealed  by  an  elaborate  caulicolus  or 
wrapping-leaf,  which  springs  from  a  calyx-like  cup- 
flower  at  its  base.  Such  spaces  as  would  otherwise  be 


FIG.  179.    RINCEAU,  FORUM  OP  TRAJAN. 

left  bare  are  often  filled  with  subordinate  scrolls  and 
tendrils,  and  in  rare  instances  animal  life  is  introduced 
in  the  form  of  birds,  mice  and  insects  (Plate  IX) . 


FIG.  18;?.     RINCEAU,  FROM  TEMPLE  OF  THE  SUN. 

While  some  examples  of  the  rinceau  are  heavy  and 
overcrowded,  as  in  the  example  from  the  Temple  of  the 
Sun  (Fig.  182),  others  are  remarkable  for  their  deli- 

154 


ROMAN  ORNAMENT,  II 

cately  handled  relief  and  exquisite  details  (Fig.  179). 
There  is  the  greatest  possible  variety  of  effect  both  in 
the  composition  and  detailed  treatment. 

The  rinceau  was  used  (a)  for  friezes  and  bands;  (b) 
for  pilasters,  either  single,  filling  the  whole  width  of  the 
pilaster-panel,  or  doubled  symmetrically  on  either  side 
of  a  central  axis  (Figure  178) ;  (c)  on  flat  surfaces  or 
panels  of  almost  any  form  symmetrically  repeated  on 
either  side  of  a  vertical  axis.  Examples  are  shown  in 
Plate  IX. 

The  Anthemion. 

The  preceding  examples  illustrate  the  applications 
of  the  acanthus  listed  under  c  and  d  (page  153) ;  Fig. 
183  and  Plate  IX,  8,  illustrate  a  group  of  forms  based 
on  the  anthemion.  While  some  examples  resemble 
quite  closely  the  Greek  carved  anthemion,  others  depart 
widely  from  the  type,  constituting  a  new  and  original 
ornament  form. 

Ceiling  Decoration. 

The  wooden  ceilings  of  the  basilicas  and  private 
houses  have  perished.  Vaulted  ceilings  were  decorated 
in  either  two  ways :  by  stucco  ornament,  modeled  in  re- 
lief and  painted,  or  by  paneling  in  deep  "coffers"  or 
"caissons."  These  were  derived  originally  through 
Greek  architecture  from  wooden  ceilings  framed  with 
intersecting  beams.  In  the  Pantheon  they  appear  to 
have  been  hewn  out  of  the  solid  brick  masonry  of  the 
dome,  long  after  its  original  completion,  its  28  rows  of 
panels  fitting  but  indifferently  over  the  eight-fold 

155 


divisions  of  the  architec- 
ture below.  An  early 
and  elegant  example  of 
vault-paneling  is  seen  in 
the  soffit  of  the  Arch  of 
Titus  (80  A.D.).  The 
panels  were  in  most  cases 
simple  geometric  forms — 
squares,  octagons,  "loz- 
enges," etc.;  the  sides  of 
each  caisson  were  molded 
and  the  fields  of  the  pan- 
els adorned  with  splen- 
didly carved  rosettes  or 
with  mosaic  patterns,  or 
else  left  plain  (Fig.  184) . 
Ceiling  decoration  in 
stucco  is  treated  in  a  later 
paragraph  (page  161; 
see  Figures  187  and  201) . 

Figure  Sculpture. 

Figure  sculpture  played 
a  far  less  important  part 
in  the  decoration  of  Roman  buildings  than  in  the  Greek 
monuments.  The  reasons  for  this  have  been  already 
touched  upon  (page  138).  Nevertheless  the  splendid 
decorative  value  of  the  figure  was  not  ignored,  but  was 
availed  of  in  many  decorative  reliefs  of  high  artistic 
excellence.  The  Romans  were  especially  successful  in 
the  sculpture  of  symbolic  grotesques  and  of  infant  fig- 

156 


FIG.  183. 


ROMAN  CARVED  ANTHEMI- 
ONS. 


ROMAN  ORNAMENT,  II 

ures  (genii  and  amorini) .  By  a  grotesque  is  meant  an 
artistic  combination  of  heterogeneous  Nature-forms,  as 
in  Fig.  195,  where  an  infant  figure  is  provided  with 
wings,  and  terminates  in  a  superb  acanthus  scroll  in 
place  of  legs.  The  festoon  or  "swag"  and  garland, 
bound  with  fluttering  ribbons  representing  sacrificial 


FIG.  184. 

fillets  (Figure  186;  Plate  VIII,  3,  6) ;  the  bucrane  or 
ox-skull,  likewise  a  sacrificial  symbol  (Plate  IX,  7) ;  the 
dolphin  and  steering-paddle  symbolizing  Neptune  and 
water  (Figure  185) ;  the  Imperial  eagle,  and  trophies 
of  arms  and  armor,  are  common  in  Roman  decorative 
art. 

The  most  beautiful  of  Roman  relief  decorations  are 
perhaps  the  charming  reliefs  modeled  in  plaster  on  the 
ceilings  and  walls  of  houses  and  thermse,  as  noted  in  a 
later  paragraph. 

157 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

Wall  Decoration. 

Three  methods  were  employed :  marble  veneer,  paint- 
ing and  stucco-relief.  Both  in  the  richer  private  houses 
and  palaces,  and  in  the  thermae,  basilicas  and  temples, 
the  lower  part  at  least  of  the  interior  walls  was  wains- 
coted with  slabs  of  variegated  marble,  so  set  as  to  pro- 
duce symmetrical  patterns  of  veining.  This  practice 
was  probably  introduced  from  Asia  Minor,  where 
marble  abounds,  although  it  has  been  contended  2  with 
a  good  deal  of  force,  that  it  came  from  Alexandria 
together  with  the  sort  of  mosaic  called  Opus  Alexan- 
drinum.  The  origin  is  less  important  than  the  result. 
A  special  emporium  was  established  on  the  Tiber  for 
the  traffic  in  marble,  of  which  enormous  quantities  were 
required  for  columns,  wainscots  and  pavements.  The 
ancient  wall-incrustations  have  mostly  disappeared,  torn 
away  to  supply  materials  for  medieval  and  even  Renais- 
sance buildings.  One  important  example,  however, 
remains;  the  interior  wall  of  the  Pantheon,  up  to  the 
main  cornice,  still  retains  for  the  most  part  its  original 
lining,  in  perfect  condition.  This  style  of  decoration 
has  survived  in  the  Early  Christian  basilicas  and  Byzan- 
tine churches  (see  Chapters  XII  and  XIII). 

Stucco  Relief. 

It  was  the  Romans  who  first,  with  the  aid,  most  prob- 
ably, of  Greek  artificers,  developed  the  artistic  possibili- 
ties of  work  in  stucco  for  interior  decorations,  especially 
of  vaulted  ceilings.  This  art  had  evidently  reached 

2  See  "Transactions  of  the  Royal  Institute  of  British  Architects,"  vol.  Ill, 
New  Series;  1887. 

158 


5 


FIQ.  187. — STUCCO  RELIEF;  TOMB  ON  VIA  LATINA 


FIG.  188. — STUCCO  RELIEF,  FROM  A  ROMAN  HOUSE  (IN  MUSEO  DELLE  TERME) 


ROMAN  ORNAMENT,  II 

a  high  state  of  perfection  by  the  middle  of  the  first 
century  A.D.  The  substructions  of  the  Golden  House 
of  Nero  (who  died  A.D.  68),  and  of  the  Baths  of  Titus, 
built  in  74  on  the  same  site,  together  with  numerous 
examples  in  Pompeii,  which  was  overwhelmed  by  the 
eruption  of  79  A.D.,  afford  abundant  proof  of  the  bril- 
liance, delicacy  and  originality  of  the  Roman  stucco- 
work  of  this  time.  The  Roman  stucco,  made  in  part 
with  pounded  marble  and  thoroughly  slaked  lime,  was 
extraordinarily  fine  and  durable.  It  was  applied  only 
as  fast  as  it  could  be  worked  into  decorative  form,  and 
molded  partly  by  mechanical  means,  partly  freehand, 
while  still  wet.  The  area  to  be  decorated  was  laid  off 
in  panels  of  various  geometric  forms,  outlined  by  mold- 
ings of  delicate  profile,  often  enriched  with  eggs-and- 
darts,  leaves  or  other  ornaments.  The  panels  were 
then  adorned  with  paintings,  with  glass-mosaic  (as  in 
the  Baths  of  Caracalla),  or  more  frequently,  with  relief 
arabesques  or  figures  modeled  in  the  stucco;  and  it  is 
in  these  last  that  the  highest  skill  was  manifested.  The 
exquisite  charm  of  this  work,  its  delicacy  of  low  relief, 
the  freedom  and  dash  of  its  execution  indicate  artistic 
ability  and  taste  of  a  very  high  order  (Figures  187, 188) . 
Important  examples  of  various  handlings  of  this 
material  are:  at  Rome,  Tombs  on  the  Via  Latina,  the 
substructions  of  the  Baths  of  Titus  and  of  Nero's 
Golden  House,  ruins  on  the  Palatine  and  fragments  in 
the  Musec  delle  Terme  from  a  house  uncovered  in  1879 
near  the  Villa  Farnesina,  in  excavations  for  the  new 
Tiber  embankments;  at  Pompeii,  the  Baths  of  the 
Forum  (the  tepidarium),  Stabian  Baths  and  a  few 

161 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

examples  in  private  houses.  The  great  majority  of 
these  date  from  the  first  century  A.D.,  after  which  a 
more  robust  and  monumental  decoration  of  walls  and 
ceilings  appears  to  have  gradually  displaced  this  charm- 
ing but  minute  and  intimate  form  of  art. 

The  ornaments  of  stucco  in  low  relief  were  often  com- 
bined with  painting,  on  walls  as  well  as  ceilings.  The 
labyrinth  of  piers  and  vaults  under  the  ruins  of  the 
Baths  of  Titus  on  the  Esquiline  (part  of  them  belong- 
ing to  the  Golden  House  of  Nero)  are  doubly  interest- 
ing because  they  furnished  the  models  from  which 
Raphael  drew  his  inspiration  for  his  remarkable  painted 
stucco-relief  decorations  in  the  Loggie  of  the  Vatican, 
and  less  directly,  Giulio  Romano  and  Giovanni  da 
Udine  for  those  in  the  Villa  Madama. 

Painting. 

The  above  examples,  especially  those  from  the  house 
uncovered  in  1879,  and  others  in  the  Villa  of  Hadrian 
at  Tivoli,  and  in  the  so-called  Casa  di  Livia  on  the 
Palatine,  prove  the  substantial  identity  of  style  of  the 
mural  paintings  in  the  Capital  with  those  at  Pompeii, 
with  only  such  differences  of  quality  as  one  might  expect 
between  the  Capital  and  a  provincial  town,  somewhat 
hastily  rebuilt  after  the  earthquake  of  63.  This  phase 
of  Roman  ornament  will  be  treated  in  the  next  chapter, 
devoted  to  Pompeii,  on  account  of  the  great  number 
and  importance  of  the  Pompeiian  examples. 

Pavements. 

The  floors  of  all  important  buildings  were  of  marble 

162 


FIG.  190. 


DETAIL,  FLOOR,  MOSAIC,  IN  VILLA 
ITALICA,  SEVILLE. 


ROMAN  ORNAMENT,  II 

or  mosaic.  Marble 
was  used  in  large 
panels  of  various 
colors  in  circles, 
squares  and  simple 
geometric  forms ;  but 
as  with  the  wains- 
coting, most  of  these 
pavements  have  dis- 
appeared to  provide 
materials  for  the 
floors  of  Christian 
basilicas.  That  of 
the  Pantheon  may  be  in  part  original,  and  fragments  of 
the  floor  of  the  Basilica  Julia  have  also  been  preserved. 
Mosaic  floors  were  paved  with  minute  tesserae  or 
roughly  squared  fragments  of 
colored  marble,  tile  or  other  ma- 
terial, set  in  patterns  usually  of 
a  plain  field  with  a  decorative  bor- 
der in  the  larger  rooms,  though  in 
smaller  rooms  all-over  patterns 
were  not  uncommon  (Plate  XI, 
9,  11,  12).  Outside  of  Rome,  in 
Asia  Minor  and  in  other  remote 
provinces  as  well  as  in  Pompeii, 
elaborately  pictured  floors  were 
executed  in  tessera?  of  variously 
colored  marbles.  The  most  fa- 
mous example  from  the  House  of 
the  Faun  in  Pompeii  is  now  pre- 
163 


FIG.      193.      ORNAMENTS, 
BRONZE  AND  GOLD. 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

served  in  the  Naples  Museum  (see  page  182).  Figure 
189  illustrates  a  floor  pattern  of  "swastikas"  from  a 
house  in  Pompeii.  There  are  some  fine  examples  in  the 
Museum  of  Constantinople.  Fig.  190  shows  a  detail 
of  the  mosaic  floor  of  a  Roman  villa  near  Seville,  Spain. 

Furniture  and  Utensils. 

Whatever  furniture  was  of  wood  has  perished;  but 
the  more  important  and  permanent  objects  in  the  equip- 


Fio.  194.     UNDER  SIDE  OF  SILVER  VASE,  HILDESHEIM  TREASURE. 

ment  of  houses  were  of  marble  and  bronze,  and  of  these, 
together  with  the  smaller  utensils  and  furnishings  in 
bronze,  we  have  many  examples  in  the  various  museums. 
As,  however,  the  great  majority  of  these  are  from 
Pompeii,  they  will  be  briefly  discussed  and  illustrated  in 
the  following  chapter  on  Pompeiian  art.  Plate  X  and 
Figures  191,  192  and  Figs.  193,  194  show  illustrations 

164 


FIG.  191. — MARBLE  VASE,  NAPLES  MUSEUM 


FIG.  192. — ROMAN  VASE  (FROM  CAST  IN  METROPOLITAN  MUSEUM,  NEW  YORK) 


ROMAN  ORNAMENT,  II 

of  pedestals,  candelabra  and  vases,  mostly  in  the  muse- 
ums of  the  Vatican  and  of  the  Capitol  at  Rome  and  in 
the  Museo  Nazionale  at  Naples.  Large  vases  of  marble, 
elaborately  sculptured,  were  used  in  the  decoration  of 
villas,  presumably  in  the  gardens,  serving  most  probably 
as  vases  for  the  planting  of  flowers,  vines  and  small  trees 
or  shrubs.  In  these,  Roman  decorative  art  reached  a 
high  degree  of  excellence  and  supplied  models  which 
the  Renaissance  artists  of  Italy  and  later  of  France 
imitated  with  success  but  hardly  surpassed.  The 
Museum  of  the  Louvre  possesses  a  colossal  marble  vase 
with  spiral  flutings  and  figures  in  relief,  and  other  ex- 
amples are  found  in  the  Capitoline  and  Vatican  museums 
at  Rome  and  the  Nazionale  at  Naples  (Figures  191, 
192).  Convex  and  concave  flutings,  acanthus-leaves 
and  guilloches,  the  vine  and  grotesques  are  the  most  com- 
mon adornments  of  these  fine  vases,  the  grace  of  whose 
outlines  is  fully  equal  to  the  splendor  of  their  decoration. 

Goldsmith's  Work  and  Jewelry. 

Skill  in  jewelry  was  shown  by  the  Etruscans,  who 
may  have  furnished  the  greater  part  of  the  jewelers 
even  in  Imperial  times.  The  character  of  the  later 
jewelry — bracelets,  brooches,  pendants  and  pins — does 
not  differ  essentially  from  that  of  the  earlier  Etruscan 
work  except  in  greater  variety  of  form.  The  bronze 
and  silver  mirrors  deserve  notice  for  the  beauty  of  the 
handles  and  backs.  The  famous  Hildesheim  Treasure, 
discovered  in  1868  at  Hildesheim,  Germany,  com- 
prising gold  and  silver  bowls,  platters  and  other  vessels 
magnificently  decorated  with  figures,  vines  and  orna- 

167 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

ments  in  relief,  reveals  the  same  excellent  taste  and  fine 
workmanship  observable  in  Roman  works  in  bronze  and 
marble  (Plate  X  and  Figure  193). 


FIG.  195. 


Books  Recommended: 

As  before,  ANDERSON  and  SPIERS,  BAUMEISTER,  JACOBSTHAL, 
KACHEL,  VULLIAMY.  Also,  F.  ALBERTOLLI:  Fregi  trovati  negli 
Scavi  del  Foro  Trajano  (Milan,  1824)  ;  Ornamenti  d'wersi  An- 
tonini  (Milan,  1843);  Manuale  di  varii  ornamenti  .  .  .  e  fra- 
menti  antichi  (Rome,  1781-1790). — J.  BUEHLMANN:  The 
Architecture  of  Classical  Antiquity  and  the  Renaissance  (New 
York,  1900). — G.  P.  CAMPANA:  Antiche  Opere  in  Plastica 
(Rome,  1851). — J.  DURM  :  Baukunst  der  Etrusker;  Baukunst 
der  Romer  (Darmstadt,  1885). — G.  EBE:  Die  Schmuckformen 

168 


ROMAN  ORNAMENT,  II 

der  Monumentalbauten  (Leipzig,  1896). — H.  D'ESPOUY:  Frag- 
ments de  I 'architecture  antique  (Paris,  1896-1905). — P.  Gus- 
MAN:  UArt  decoratif  de  Rome  (Paris,  1908). —  S.  HESSEL- 
BACH:  Vergleichende  Darstellung  der  antiken  Ornamentik,  etc. 
(Wiirzburg,  1849). — J.  DE  MARTA:  L'Art  Etrusque;  Archeol- 
ogie  etrusque  et  romaine  (Paris,  n.  d.). — STRACK:  Baudenk- 
maler  Roms.  (Berlin,  1891). — C.  H.  TATHAM:  Etchings 
(London,  1810). — TAYLOR  AND  CRESY,  Antiquities  of  Rome 
(London,  1824). — THIERRY:  Klassische  Ornamente. — C.  UHDE: 
Architecturformen  des  Klassischen  Altertums  (Berlin,  n.  d.); 
also  an  edition  in  English  (New  York,  1909). 

Consult  also  various  volumes  of  the  engravings  of  PIRANESI 
(to  be  found  only  in  the  larger  libraries)  ;  the  volumes  of 
L'Art  pour  Tous  (Paris,  1863 — )  ;  and  the  printed  transactions 
of  various  archaeological  societies,  for  valuable  material. 


169 


CHAPTER  XI 

POMPEIIAN  ORNAMENT 

The  decorative  art  of  Pompeii  was  a  provincial  phase 
of  Roman  art  differing  from  that  of  the  capital  in  cer- 
tain aspects,  precisely  as  in  Dalmatia,  in  Syria  and  in 
North  Africa,  local  conditions  modified  the  detailed 
forms  of  decorative  expression  while  the  Roman  impress 
was  nevertheless  over  all.  It  is  pervaded  by  a  spirit 
of  Grecian  delicacy  and  refinement,  due  to  the  strong 
Greek  element  in  the  population  of  Southern  Italy;  but 
there  are  details  on  the  other  hand  which  smack  of  the 
Etruscan.  The  importance  of  Pompeiian  art  is  due  to 
its  wonderfully  complete  preservation  by  burial  under 
the  scoriae  after  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius  in  79  A.D. 
Its  progressive  excavation  since  1748  has  laid  bare  the 
aspect,  life  and  art  of  a  provincial  South  Italian  city  of 
the  first  century,  while  all  other  Roman  cities  (except 
Herculanum,  still  buried)  have  suffered  complete  trans- 
formation by  successive  rebuildings  through  eighteen 
centuries. 

Two  facts  must  be  kept  in  mind  in  all  study  of  Pom- 
peiian art:  first,  that  the  majority  of  houses  and  many 
of  the  temples  and  public  buildings  were,  at  the  time 
of  the  eruption,  newly  built  to  replace  those  destroyed 
by  the  earthquake  of  63  A.D.;  and  that  in  consequence 

170 


POMPEIIAN  ORNAMENT 

of  the  earthquake  they  were  mostly  low  buildings,  un- 
like the  more  lofty  and  monumental  architecture  of 
most  other  cities;  secondly,  that  they  represent  the 
relatively  early  Roman  art  of  the  first  century,  previous 
to  the  time  of  Domitian,  and  not  of  the  later  and  more 
splendid  Imperial  age.  Yet  in  the  matter  of  decoration 
there  is  less  difference  of  style  than  one  would  expect 
from  the  work  of  the  same  age  in  the  Capital  (e.g.,  the 


FIG.  196.    IONIC  CAP,  CORKER  VOLTTTES. 

House  of  Livia  and  the  frescoes  in  the  Museo  delle 
Terme)  or  even  of  a  later  period  as  seen  in  the  Villa 
of  Hadrian. 

The  ornament  of  Pompeii  will  be  discussed  under 
four  heads:  (1)  Architectural  detail ;  (2)  Mural  decora- 
tion; (3)  Mosaic;  (4)  Furniture  and  utensils.  It  will 
be  seen  that  in  all  these  divisions,  while  the  motives  are 
essentially  Roman,  there  is  a  freedom,  a  lightness  of 
touch  and  delicacy  of  treatment,  which  suggest  Greek 
workmanship,  and  which  are  probably  due  to  the  per- 
sistent strain  of  Hellenic  blood  in  the  population  of  all 
Southern  Italy. 

171 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 


Architectural  Detail. 

The  Orders  were  handled  with  great  freedom,  whether 
executed  in  cut-stone,  or,  as  more  frequently,  in  rubble 
or  brick  finished  in  stucco.  The  Doric  order  was  often 
of  the  Greek  rather  than  of  the  Roman  type ;  the  Ionic 
capital  usually  had  doubled  corner- volutes  and  a  very 
slight  projection  or  width  as  compared  with  both  Greek 
and  Roman  types  (Fig.  196),  and  the  Corinthian 


FIG.  197.    POMPEIIAN  MOLDINGS. 


capital  was  considerably  varied,  both  in  the  number  and 
character  of  its  leaves.  The  Roman  type  of  acanthus 
is  not  found,  a  more  bluntly  crinkled  leaf  being  pre- 
ferred. The  Doric  columns  had  no  bases,  those  of  the 
other  orders  often  lacked  plinths ;  the  moldings  differed 
from  the  Roman,  in  having  profiles  more  varied  and 
delicate,  with  an  almost  feminine  refinement  (Fig. 
197).  The  entablatures  have  for  the  most  part 
perished.  The  few  fragments  that  remain  intact  show 
the  same  characteristics  in  varying  from  the  fashions 
of  Rome  and  in  refinement  of  detail.  A  common 
Pompeiian  feature  was  the  filling-up  of  the  lower  part 

172 


POMPEIIAN  ORNAMENT 

of  the  flutings  of  stuccoed  columns,  to  prevent  the 
chipping  and  marring  of  the  fragile  arrises ;  sometimes  a 
convex  "flute"  or  bead  inserted  in  this  portion  protected 
without  quite  filling  the  fluting,  and  this  has  become  a 
common  decorative  device  of  modern  architecture. 

All  this  Pompeiian  architecture  of  rubble  and  stucco 
was  embellished  with  color,  of  which  traces  still  remain. 
Even  capitals  were  painted  and  the  carved  and  molded 


FIG.  198.    CARVED  POMPEIIAX  RINCEAU. 

details  were  adorned  in  like  manner.  One  house  is 
known  as  the  Casa  del  capitelli  colorati,  the  House  of 
Painted  Capitals,  because  of  the  perfect  preservation 
of  the  color  on  its  stucco  or  cement  capitals;  but  it  was 
originally  but  one  of  hundreds  so  adorned.  Figure  198 
illustrates  the  elegance  of  detail  in  a  carved  rinceau  in 
stone. 

Mural  Decoration. 

In  this  field  the  Pompeiian  remains  are  unrivaled. 
The  chief  means  of  decoration  was  by  painting  on 
stucco ;  the  use  of  rich  marbles,  whether  for  construction 

173 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

or  wall-incrustation,  although  increasingly  common  in 
Rome  for  at  least  a  half  century  before  the  destruction 
of  Pompeii,  was  not  common  in  the  provincial  town. 
The  surprising  thing  is  that  within  less  than  sixteen 
years  after  the  destructive  earthquake  of  A.D.  63,  this 
town  should  have  been  rebuilt  with  such  elaboration  of 
elegance  in  its  painted  decorations  as  the  remains  have 
exhibited.  Many  of  the  paintings  have  been  trans- 
ferred to  the  Royal  Museum  at  Naples,  but  the  wealth 
of  decoration  still  remaining  in  place  is  astonishing,  in 
quality  as  well  as  quantity.  Some  of  the  more  recently 
excavated  houses — that  of  Queen  Margherita,  of  the 
Vettii,  and  others,  equal  or  surpass  the  splendors  of  the 
Museum  (Figures  199,  200). 

Four  well-marked  periods  or  styles  (for  doubtless 
they  overlap  independently  of  period-limits)  are  recog- 
nized. The  first,  supposed  to  be  Etruscan  or  Cumaean, 
and  dating  as  far  back  as  100  B.C.,  is  that  of  walls  simply 
divided  into  panels  of  different  colors  with  occasional 
painted  imitations  of  marble  wainscot.  The  second, 
called  the  Greek,  supposed  to  have  been  introduced 
about  80  B.C.,  is  distinguished  by  the  earliest  use  of 
pictures  copied  from  Greek  originals,  or  reminiscences 
of  them,  the  subjects  being  mostly  taken  from  Greek 
mythology.  A  very  simple  type  of  painted  archi- 
tectural embellishment  accompanies  many  of  these  pic- 
tured decorations:  painted  columns,  bases  and  entab- 
latures serving  to  mark  off  the  wall-divisions.  The 
third  and  fourth  styles  are  Roman  or  Pompeiian;  both 
are  found  in  the  houses  rebuilt  after  the  earthquake, 
and  both  are  characterized  by  a  light  and  fantastic  archi- 

174 


POMPEIIAN  ORNAMENT 

tecture  painted  in  a  conventional  perspective,  with 
slender  columns  as  of  gold,  with  extraordinary  entab- 
latures, pediments  and  balconies,  giving  vistas  of  the 
clear  sky  above,  and  enclosing  pictures  of  varied  sub- 
jects, sometimes  of  large  size,  or  simpler  colored  panels 
in  the  centers  of  which  float  airy  figures  of  nymphs, 
cupids  and  other  mj^thological  beings,  In  the  Fourth 
or  Florid  style  this  "dream"  architecture  is  still  more 
complex,  attenuated  and  fantastic  than  in  the  Third, 
and  the  simpler  and  more  obvious  wall-decorations 
of  friezes  and  arabesques  play  a  smaller  part  in  the 
scheme. 

In  the  painted  details,  apart  from  pictures  and  the 
architecture,  there  is  a  great  variety  of  conventional 
patterns  for  bands  of  ornament;  a  remarkably  elegant 
treatment  of  the  rinceau  motive,  in  varied  colors  on 
black  or  red  (Plate  XI,  6)  ;  and  a  corresponding  inter- 
pretation of  carved  pilaster— arabesques  in  painted 
arabesques  of  yellow  and  other  colors  on  a  red,  green  or 
dark  background  (Plate  XI,  1-6).  Much  of  this 
decoration  has  the  character  of  mere  artisanship,  but  it 
is  extremely  clever  artisanship,  and  one  has  no  right  to 
call  for  the  higher  qualities  of  art  in  the  decorations  of 
ordinary  houses. 

The  technic  of  the  painting  has  been  much  discussed ; 
but  it  is  now  quite  generally  believed  to  have  been 
executed  in  true  fresco  on  the  wet  plaster,  at  least  in 
the  majority  of  examples;  and  then  touched  up  and 
many  of  the  details  worked  over,  in  the  finer  examples 
with  encaustic  painting.  In  this  last  process  the  pig- 
ments were  mixed  in  melted  wax  on  a  hot  metal  palette 

177 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

and  applied  with  a  hot  iron  instrument  instead  of  a 
brush.1 

Stucco  Relief. 

This  form  of  mural  decoration,  as  applied  both  to 
walls  and  ceilings,  has  already  been  touched  upon  (see 
ante,  page  158).  A  comparison  of  the  examples  from 
Rome  and  Pompeii  respectively,  discloses  no  funda- 
mental difference  of  style  or  even  quality  between  the 
work  in  the  two  cities.  The  most  notable  examples  in 
Pompeii  are  those  in  the  two  chief  baths — the  Thermae 
of  the  Forum  and  of  Stabii.  In  these  we  have  a  rinceau 
frieze,  delicate  panel-moldings,  ideal  or  mythological 
figures,  Tritons,  winged  figures,  dolphins  and  the  like, 
and  free-hand  arabesques,  all  treated  with  an  animation 
of  design,  a  freedom  from  mechanical  repetition  and 
hardness,  and  a  delicacy  of  handling,  worthy  of  Greece 
and  of  the  Capital,  and  surprising  to  find  in  a  relatively 
small  provincial  city  (Figure  201;  Plate  XI,  7,  10). 
This  and  the  Roman  stucco-work  ought  to  be  fruitfully 
suggestive  to  modern  decorators,  for  its  effects  are  full 
of  charm,  and  yet  not  unduly  costly  or  difficult  to  pro- 
duce. 

Besides  these  interior  decorations  in  low  relief,  there 
should  be  mentioned  the  decorations  of  the  exteriors  of 
buildings  by  stucco  details  molded  upon  a  rough  core 
of  rubble  or  brick,  and  also  the  use  of  stucco  for  columns 
and  capitals  in  place  of  stone.  It  is  easy  to  criticize 
adversely  this  substitution  of  a  fragile  for  a  monumental 

i  In  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art  at  New  York  there  are  several  sec- 
tions of  wall  from  a  villa  at  Boscoreale,  with  decorations  of  the  Third 
Period, — mostly  landscapes  of  buildings  and  farms. 

178 


FIG.  201. — POMPEIIAN  STUCCO  RELIEF;  FROM  THE  STABIAN  BATHS 


POMPEIIAN  ORNAMENT 


material  in  exterior  ar- 
chitecture; but  given  a 
scarcity  of  marble  and  of 
good  building  stone  with 
an  abundance  of  soft  tufa 
and  of  "pozzolana"  for 
the  making  of  cement- 
stucco;  given  also  the  ne- 
cessity of  a  rapid  re- 
building of  almost  an 
entire  town  after  the 
earthquake  of  63,  and  it 
would  be  hard  to  imagine 
a  more  artistic  and  satis- 
factory result  than  the 
Pompeiians  produced  in  a 
few  short  years  with  rub- 
ble, stucco  and  paint. 

Mosaic. 


FIG.  202.     MOSAIC  FLOOR  PATTERNS. 


Mosaic  floors  were  al- 
most all  of  Opus  Grecanicum,  laid  in  small  tesserae  of 
marble  and  other  stone  or  even  tile,  in  patterns  which 
frequently  suggest  rug-designs.  Each  floor  has  a  bor- 
der and  either  an  all-over  patterned  field  (see  Fig.  189) , 
a  central  medallion,  or  a  spangled  field  (Fig.  202; 
Plate  XI,  9,  11,  12).  The  swastika  appears  in  some  of 
these.  The  chained  dog  with  the  inscription  Cave 
Canem  ("beware  the  dog")  was  a  common  decoration 
of  the  prothyrum  or  vestibule.  The  finer  houses  boasted 
elaborate  pictures  in  color,  made  with  very  small  tesseraa, 

181 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

and  in  some  cases,  no  doubt,  copying  parts  or  the  whole 
of  celebrated  Greek  pictures.  Genre  pictures  and  ani- 
mal subjects  were  common.  The  greatest  and  finest  of 


FIG.    205.    TABLE-LEO     (MARBLE)     AND    BRONZE    CANDELABRUM    DETAILS. 

NAPLES  MUSEUM. 

all  mosaic  pictures  was  found  in  the  House  of  the  Faun 
and  transferred  to  the  Naples  Museum;  it  represents 
presumably  the  Battle  of  Issus,  in  a  panel  measuring 

182 


POMPEIIAN  ORNAMENTS/I^  ,  , 

A 1 1       ^Hlt 

over  9  by  17  feet,  and  probably  reproduces  some  cel£0  A^  ^Ti 
brated  Greek  painting  in  Alexandria,  from  which  city, 
after  Pompey's  victory  in  69  B.C.,  a  strong  Hellenic  in- 
fluence was  exerted  on  Roman  art.  The  portrait  of 
Alexander  is  unmistakable;  the  light  and  shade,  fore- 
shortening, drawing  and  color  are  remarkable  and  the 
execution  extraordinarily  fine. 

Mosaic  was  employed  on  walls  as  well  as  floors,  though 
sparingly.  A  singular  freak  or  novelty  of  design  was 
the  occasional  combination  of  stucco-relief  and  mosaic. 
Another  use  of  mosaic  was  in  the  decoration  of  the 
entire  visible  surface  of  various  edicules,  such  as  shrines 
and  niche-fountains  (Figure  203,  p.  185),  upon  which 
the  most  brilliant  colors  of  blue,  red  and  green  were 
applied  by  the  use  of  glass  tessera?,  and  varied  effectively 
sometimes  by  scallop-shells  inserted  in  bands  or  lines. 

Furniture  and  Utensils. 

The  excavations  at  Pompeii  and  Herculanum  have 
thrown  a  light  on  the  more  intimate  details  of  Roman 
life  not  elsewhere  to  be  obtained ;  not  only  by  the  paint- 
ings of  scenes  from  daily  life  and  by  the  sgraffiti  or 
scribblings  on  walls,  but  even  more  by  the  great  wealth 
of  utensils,  implements  and  furniture  of  metal  and 
marble  exhumed  from  the  ruins  and  for  the  most  part 
transferred  to  the  Naples  Museum.  Everything  of 
wood  and  cloth  was  destroyed  by  the  eruption,  but 
marble  and  bronze  and  even  iron  were  preserved  by 
their  burial  in  the  volcanic  ashes,  and  we  have  set  before 
us  the  marble  tables  that  adorned  the  atrium  and  peri- 
style, the  fountains  and  marble  vases  or  basins,  the 

183 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

bronze  couch-heads  and  frames,  the  candelabra  and  tri- 
pods of  bronze,  the  braziers,  water-heaters,  mirrors, 
lamps,  hair  pins,  fibulce  or  clasps,  and  innumerable  other 
objects  of  metal.  Here  again  the  Greek  refinement 
appears  in  all  the  details.  Grotesques  are  sculptured 
with  consummate  skill  (Fig.  204) ;  especially  notice- 
able are  the  lion's  paws  terminating  in  human  or  in 
beasts'  heads  (Plate  X,  11, 12)  and  the  winged  monsters 
on  table-supports.  The  lightness  and  grace  of  the 
bases  and  fluted  standards  of  tripods  and  candelabra 
suggest  that  from  them  in  part  came  the  inspiration 
for  the  fantastically  slender  columns  of  the  wall-paint- 
ings (Fig.  205).  It  is  interesting  to  compare  these 
slender  candelabra  and  tripods  with  the  massively  splen- 
did forms  of  Roman  candelabra  in  bronze  and  in  marble 
in  the  Vatican  (see  Plate  X).  The  Pompeiian  tombs 
and  altars  compared  with  the  Roman  show  a  somewhat 
similar  contrast  in  the  detail,  though  less  strongly 
marked;  there  is  more  reserve,  less  monumental  bold- 
ness in  the  composition  and  in  the  detail. 

Books  Recommended: 

MAU,  trans,  by  KELSEY:  Pompeii  (New  York,  1902). — 
MAZOIS:  Les  mines  de  Pompeii  (Paris,  1824). — NICCOLINI:  Le 
case  ed  i  monumenti  di  Pompeii  (Naples,  1854—96). — PRESUHN: 
Die  neueste  Ausgrabungen  zu  Pompeii  (Leipzig,  1882). — 
ZAHN:  Ornemens  de  Pompeii  (Berlin,  1828);  Omamente  oiler 
Klassischen  Kunstepochen  (Berlin,  I860). 


184 


FIG.  203. — MOSAIC  FOUNTAIN,  IN  COURT  OF 
CASA  GRANDE 


FIG.  204. — MARBLE  TABLE  SUPPORTS;  HOUSE  OF  CORNELIUS  RUFUS 


CHAPTER  XII 

EARLY   CHRISTIAN   OR   BASILICAN    ORNAMENT 

It  would  be  hard  to  point  to  two  successive  styles  of 
architecture  and  ornament  further  apart  in  spirit  and 
detail  than  those  of  Imperial  Rome  and  Early  Christian 
Rome,  yet  they  form  no  exception  to  the  rule  of  style- 
development  by  gradual  transition.  This  transition  is 
for  us  obscured  first  by  the  widespread  destruction  of 
early  churches  in  the  East  during  the  Moslem  conquests 
and  in  the  West  during  the  persecutions  under  Dio- 
cletian, and  also  by  the  fact  that  the  beginnings  of  Chris- 
tian symbolic  art  in  Europe  were  made  in  the  catacombs 
and  not  above  ground,  and  were  thus  humble  and  incon- 
spicuous. But  the  Christian  artists  were  Romans, 
working  upon  the  basis  of  Roman  art  traditions  which, 
up  to  the  legalization  of  Christianity  by  Constantine  in 
312  A.D.,  were  applied  alike  to  secular  and  religious 
buildings.  It  was  the  predominance  after  that  date  of 
religious  art  employing  a  wholly  new  symbolism  that 
most  effectively  differentiated  the  Christian  from  the 
pagan  Imperial  style. 

Christian  art  began,  then,  nowhere  as  a  consciously 
new  art,  but  everywhere  in  Syria,  Asia  Minor,  Egypt, 
Italy  and  Greece — as  a  phase  of  the  existing  local  art. 
In  the  Eastern  empire,  with  Constantinople  as  its  center, 

187 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

religious  architecture  and  decoration  diverged  rapidly 
under  Greek  influence  from  the  style  of  the  West  to 
become  what  we  call  the  Byzantine.  In  Italy,  with 
Rome  as  its  center,  they  took  on  the  development  com- 
monly called  the  Early  Christian,  or  Latin,  or — from 
the  resemblance  of  the  churches  to  the  secular  basilicas 
of  the  Empire — the  Basilican  style. 

Early  Christian  Art  Sepulchral. 

The  beginnings  of  Christian  art  are  not,  however,  to 
be  looked  for  in  architecture.  Until  the  edict  of  Con- 
stantine  legalizing  Chris- 
tianity, its  rites  were,  at 
least  in  the  West,  prac- 
tised in  private,  largely  in 
secret,  and  the  language 
of  symbols  took  on  in- 
creased importance  where 
persecution  so  often  fol- 
lowed open  speech.  Upon 
the  walls  of  the  cata- 
combs, which  served  not 
merely  as  places  of  sep- 
ulture but  also  as  meet- 
ing-places for  worship, 
were  painted  scriptural 
scenes  and  symbolic  com- 
positions :  the  Good  Shep- 
herd as  a  yOUng  man  FlG-  ~06-  SARCOPHAGUS  END,  RAVEX  if  A. 

carrying  a  lamb  on  his  shoulder,  in  evident  reminiscence 
of  the  classic  Herakles  Kriophoros ;  the  fish,  the  letters  of 

188 


FIG.  207. — DETAIL,  SAN  LOKENZO  FUORI  LE  MURA 


FIG.  210. — APSE  MOSAIC,  SAN  CLEMENTE 


BASILICAN  ORNAMENT 

which  word  in  Greek  (frflw)  form  an  acrostic  of  the 
Greek  words  for  "Jesus  Christ,  Son  of  God,  Savior"; 
the  vine,  in  allusion  to  Christ's  saying,  "I  am  the  Vine," 
and  other  like  representations.  Later  many  other  forms 
were  added :  the  Labarum — the  standard  borne  by  Con- 
stantine's  army  after  his  victory  of  the  Milvian  Bridge, 
in  both  forms  ^  and  -f-  ;  the  letters  I  H  S,  the  first 
three  letters  of  the  Greek  IHSOYS,  later  taken  to  signify 
both  lesus  Hominum  Salvator  and  In  Hoc  Signo 
(vinces),  the  words  heard  or  seen  by  Constantine  in  his 
vision  at  the  Milvian  Bridge;  the  cyress-tree,  symbolic 
of  the  cemetery  and  hence  of  death  and  burial  and 
finally  baptism,  which  was  regarded  as  the  burial  of 
the  sinful  nature ; *  the  emblems  of  the  four  evangelists 
— the  ox  for  Matthew,  the  lion,  for  Mark,  the  head  of  a 
man  for  Luke,  the  eagle  for  John;  angels  and  cherubs, 
funereal  wreaths  and  festoons  and  finally  the  cross  itself, 
equal-armed  after  the  Greek  fashion,  or  with  a  long 
standard  after  the  Latin.  Sheep  to  represent  the  flock 
of  the  Church;  the  Paschal  cup,  the  peacock  and  other 
emblems  of  various  significations  were  little  by  little 
added  to  the  list,  and  appear  both  in  Latin  and  Byzan- 
tine art.  It  is  somewhat  remarkable  that  the  cross  does 
not  appear  until  late ;  hardly  at  all  before  the  latter  part 
of  the  fifth  or  the  early  sixth  century.  Many  of  the 
Christian  emblems  were  already  familiar  forms  in 
Roman  pagan  art.  Angels  were  but  Roman  winged 
genii  endowed  with  a  new  significance;  the  vine,  origi- 
nally a  Bacchic  emblem,  became  a  Christ-symbol;  the 
wreath  and  festoon  were  transferred  from  the  service 

i  Romans  vii,  <t. 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

of  Roman  sacrifices  to  that  of  Christian  burial.  Most 
of  these  forms  were  used  at  first  with  purely  symbolic 
intent,  having  significance  only  for  the  initiated.  In 
time,  however,  the  symbolic  intent,  as  always  in  the 
evolution  of  decorative  art,  because  subordinate  to  the 
decorative:  the  symbol  became  a  common  ornament, 
multiplied  and  endlessly  varied  in  the  decoration  not 
merely  of  sarcophagi  (Fig.  206)  and  funereal  chapels, 
but  of  churches,  baptisteries,  oratories  and  tombs.  All 
the  resources  of  mosaic,  painting  and  carving  were  en- 
listed in  their  representation.  Figure  sculpture  alone 
remained  for  centuries  undeveloped,  largely  in  conse- 
quence of  the  hatred  of  pagan  idolatry  with  which  it 
was  so  generally  associated  in  the  popular  mind. 

Architectural  Ornament. 

Early  Christian  art  in  the  West  made  little  of  archi- 
tecture. Two  types  of  building  predominated,  the 
basilican  church  and  the  baptistery.  The  first  was  a 
simple  three-aisled  hall  with  a  wooden  roof,  a  semi- 
circuliar  apse  for  the  clergy  at  the  further  end,  and  a 
transverse  porch  or  narthex  across  the  entrance-front. 
The  two  rows  of  columns  which  separated  the  broad  cen- 
tral aisle  or  nave  from  the  side-aisles,  supported  each  a 
clearstory  wall  rising  above  the  roofs  of  the  side-aisles 
and  carrying  the  lofty  central  roof:  these  walls  were 
pierced  with  windows  to  light  the  nave.  In  the  larger 
basilicas  there  were  double  side-aisles,  and  in  some  in- 
stances a  transverse  aisle,  called  the  transept,  as  high  and 
nearly  as  wide  as  the  nave,  crossed  it  directly  in  front 
of  the  apse.  The  arch  forming  the  front  of  the  apse 

192 


BASILICAN  ORNAMENT 

was  generally  called  the  triumphal  arch,  though  in  tran- 
septal  basilicas  the  name  is  applied  to  the  great  arch  by 
which  the  nave  enters  the  transept.  Excepting  the  half- 
dome  over  the  apse,  no  vaulting  was  employed  in  these 
churches.  The  columns  were  taken  from  pagan  ruins, 
and  so  indifferent  were  the  churchmen  to  architectural 
regularity  that  the  columns  of  the  same  row  often  dis- 
play a  great  variety  of  sizes  and  even  different  orders 
of  capitals  (Figure  207).  This  was  partly  due  to  the 
poverty  of  the  churches  during  the  gloomy  centuries  fol- 
lowing the  fall  of  Rome,  but  all  the  evidence  points  to  a 
strangely  prevalent  indifference  to  architecture  as  an 
art,  which  the  three  great  basilicas  of  St.  Peter,  St.  Paul 
and  Sta.2  Maria  Maggiore  (all  three  originally  built  be- 
fore the  final  fall  of  Rome)  only  emphasize  by  contrast. 
The  builders  of  basilicas  were  chiefly  engrossed  with  the 
applied  decorations  of  their  churches.  Even  in  this 
field,  Roman  art  remained  almost  stationary  for  centu- 
ries, depending  largely  upon  Byzantine  artists  for  a  part 
of  this  decoration. 

Elements  of  Latin  Ornament. 

The  architectural  ornament  consisted  of  the  following 
elements:  (a)  pavements  of  colored  marble  and  hard 
stone,  in  a  combination  of  opus  sectile  and  opus  Alex- 
andrinum;3  (b)  marble  sheathing  or  wainscot  on  the 
lower  walls;  (c)  mosaic  on  the  apse  and  its  arch,  on  the 
triumphal  transept  arch,  and  on  the  clearstory  walls; 
rarely,  in  late  examples,  on  the  exterior  of  the  front  or 

2  Hereafter  S.  and  Sta.  will  be  used  for  San,  Santo  and  Santa. 
»  Sectile  =3  cut  to  shape ;  A  lexandrinum  =.  of  small  geometric  units. 

193 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

narthex  and  on  cloister  arcades;  (d)  the  ornamentation 
of  the  fixed  furniture  of  the  church;  and  (e) ,  the  decora- 
tion by  painting  or  otherwise  of  the  wooden  ceilings  of 
nave  and  aisles. 

A.    Floor  Pavements. 

Dates  and  periods  are  hard  to  fix  and  signify  little  in 
this  field  of  design,  as  the  style  remained  practically  un- 


FIG.  208.     FLOOK   MOSAIC,   SAN   CLEMENTS,   ROME. 

changed  for  centuries.  The  nave  floor  was  commonly 
divided  into  rectangular  panels  by  broad  bands  of 
colored  marble  in  which  were  set  guilloche  patterns  (Fig. 
208)  in  opus  sectile  combined  with  Alexandrinum. 
The  panels  were  filled  with  field  patterns  of  Alex- 
andrinum surrounding  discs  or  slabs  of  solid  color 
(see  Plate  XIII,  12).  Porphyry,  verd-antique,  ser- 

191 


BASILICAN  ORNAMENT 

pentine,  and  white  and  yellow  marble  were  the  usual  ma- 
terials employed,  and  the  resulting  effects  were  rich  and 
yet  sober,  indestructible,  and  soft  in  color-harmony. 
The  round  disks  were  cut  from  antique  columns  sawed 
into  slices,  and  all  the  ruins  of  antiquity  were  a  quarry 
for  paving  materials. 

This  form  of  floor-decoration  is  probably  the  most 
effective  ever  devised.  The  contrast  of  the  solid  dark 
red  or  green  of  the  disks  with  the  sparkle  of  the  minute 
patterns  of  Alexandrinum  and  the  sweeping  curves  of 
the  huge  guilloches  surrounding  them,  produce  a  decora- 
tive ensemble  in  every  way  admirable.  Splendid  ex- 
amples survive  in  the  churches  of  Sta.  Maria  in 
Trastevere,  Sta.  Maria  Maggiore,  San  Lorenzo,  San 
Marco  and  San  Clemente.  Floors  of  this  description 
were  in  vogue  throughout  the  entire  Middle  Ages,  in 
Rome  and  its  neighborhood  and  even  in  remote  Italy,  as 
in  the  floor  of  the  Byzantine  St.  Mark's  Church  at 
Venice,  dating  from  the  llth  century. 

B.    Marble  Wainscoting. 

This  system  of  wall  decoration,  often  called  incrusta- 
tion, was  inherited  from  ancient  Rome,  but  was  used 
more  extensively  in  the  Eastern  than  in  the  Western 
churches.  The  Roman  basilicas  have  moreover  been  so 
often  remodeled  that  nearly  every  vestige  of  their  in- 
crustations has  disappeared.  Exceptions  are  found  in 
Sta.  Agnese  and  in  Sta.  Sabina;  in  the  latter  the  arch- 
spandrels  are  inlaid  with  formal  conventional  patterns. 
Usually  the  practice  was  followed  of  symmetrically  pair- 
ing slabs  having  similar  veinings,  as  is  shown  in  Fig. 

195 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 


FIG.  209.     BYZAKTIKE  WAINSCOT. 

209,  a  Byzantine  example  from  Constantinople.  This 
practice  is  common  to  the  Basilican  and  Byzantine 
styles. 

C.    Mosaic. 

In  this  art,  at  least  in  that  branch  of  it  in  which  small 
cubes  or  tessera  of  glass  are  employed  to  form  pictures 
and  patterns  on  walls  and  vaults  (opus  Grecanicum),  it 
is  impossible  to  distinguish  sharply  between  the  Byzan- 
tine and  Basilican  or  Latin  styles.  Greeks  from  Con- 
stantinople doubtless  were  often  employed  to  execute 
mosaics  in  Rome,  and  were  probably  the  originators  of 

196 


BASILICAN  ORNAMENT 

this  form  of  Christian  art.  By  means  of  minute  tesserae 
of  glass  "paste,"  pictures  and  patterns  can  be  formed  of 
any  desired  combination  and  gradation  of  colors,  gold 
and  silver  effects  being  produced  by  gold-  or  silver-leaf 
imprisoned  between  two  layers  of  glass  paste  fused  to- 
gether. The  deep  blues,  from  lapis-lazuli  to  a  soft 
green-blue,  the  rich  reds,  soft  yellows  and  greens  and 
brilliant  gold  and  silver  of  this  sort  of  mosaic  made  pos- 
sible a  splendor  of  color  far  transcending  any  form  of 
painting,  and  unrivaled  in  depth  and  intensity  except  by 
the  later  invention  of  stained  glass.  Its  magnificence 
appealed  strongly  to  the  taste  of  the  early  Christian  cen- 
turies, and  its  adaptation  to  pictorial  representation 
fitted  it  to  express  that  symbolism  which  the  mental 
habit  of  the  times  demanded.  Accordingly  there  is 
more  of  picturing  than  of  pure  ornament,  which  is  con- 
fined chiefly  to  narrow  borders,  often  simulating  jewels 
set  in  gold.  It  remained  for  the  Byzantines  to  develop 
the  possibilities  of  mosaic  in  the  field  of  pure  ornament. 
The  most  important  mosaics  were  in,  or  on,  the  apse- 
vaults,  and  represented  such  subjects  as  the  Kingdom  of 
God  by  the  symbolism  of  the  Shepherd  and  twelve  sheep, 
or  some  like  composition.  Similar  subjects,  with  angels, 
adorned  the  spandrels  by  the  apse  arch,  and  the  trium- 
phal transept-arch.  The  clearstory  often  bore  pictures 
of  saints,  angels  and  apostles,  and  Biblical  scenes. 
Among  the  finest  of  all  Latin  mosaics  are  those  of  the 
apses  of  Sta.  Pudenziana  and  Sta.  Maria  in  Trastevere, 
the  apse  and  triumphal  arch  of  St.  Paul  without  the 
Walls  ( S.  Paolo  fuori  le  mura)  recovered  from  the  ruins 
of  the  original  basilica  and  incorporated  in  the  modern 

197 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

reconstruction;  of  Sta.  Prassede  and  Sta.  Sabina,  all  at 
Rome;  and  of  the  two  San  Apollinare  churches  at 
Ravenna  (sixth  century).  Of  later  date  is  the  superb 
rinceau  decoration  in  the  apse-head  of  San  Clemente 
(1096-1104) :  an  exceptional  example  of  conventional 
ornament  in  mosaic  in  a  basilica  (Figure  210).  Apart 
from  such  applications  of  the  rinceau,  there  were 
few  distinctive  ornament  motives  in  the  mosaic  decora- 


Fio.  211.     EARLY  CHRISTIAN  MOSAIC  BORDERS. 

tions.  Fig.  211  shows  two  examples  of  mosaic  bor- 
ders, a  from  the  palace  of  St.  John  Lateran,  a  mosaic  of 
the  eighth  century ;  b  from  the  f a£ade  of  Santa  Maria  in 
Trastevere,  both  in  Rome. 

D.    Ecclesiastical  Furniture. 

The  chief  elements  in  the  fixed  furniture  of  the 
churches  were  the  ciborium  or  baldaquin — the  canopy 
over  the  altar  and  tomb  of  the  saint;  the  altar  itself; 
the  choir-enclosure;  and  the  two  pulpits  or  ambones, 
affected  respectively  to  the  reading  of  the  Gospels  and 
of  the  Epistles,  the  former  being  adorned  with  a 

198 


BASILICAN  ORNAMENT 

columnar  candelabrum.  The 
seats  for  the  clergy  were  orig- 
inally simple  steps  of  marble  set 
around  the  apse,  and  the  bishop's 
throne  was  apparently  of  very 
simple  design.  Later  the  clergy- 
seats  were  removed  from  the 
apse  or  bema  and  the  altar 
placed  there  in  their  stead, 
though  the  ciborium  remained 
in  its  original  position  to  mark 
the  tomb  of  the  martyr  or  saint. 
All  this  fixed  furniture  was  of 
marble,  usually  built  up  of  flat 
slabs  inlaid  with  opus  Alexan- 
drinum.  The  ciborium  was  a 
structure  of  four  columns  with 
a  pyramidal  roof;  the  altar  a 
simple  rectangular  box  or  table 
of  marble;  the  choir-enclosure  a  Fm'  2l2'  ARA  CoELI'  RoME* 
paneled  marble  parapet  about  three  feet  high;  the  am- 
bones,  elevated  reading-desks  on  either  side  of  the  choir 
reached  by  flights  of  steep  stairs.  The  decoration  of 
these  simple  forms  was  often  very  rich,  especially  of  the 
pulpits  and  altar  frontals  (Fig.  212).  It  consisted  of 
inlaid  patterns  of  opus  Alexandrinum  combined  with 
disks  and  guilloches  of  sectile,  in  principle  like  the  floor- 
mosaics,  but  finer  in  scale  and  execution.  In  the  later 
work,  the  geometrical  units  of  the  Alexandrine  mosaic — 
triangles,  squares,  circular  segments,  etc. — were  often  of 
glass  paste,  producing  much  more  brilliant  effects  than 

199 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

the  marble  and  porphyry  units  of  the  earlier  works.  It 
appears  to  have  been  first  used  in  the  spiral  flutings  of 
the  gospel  or  Easter  column.  This  brilliant  form  of 
Alexandrine  work,  whatever  its  origin,  became  espe- 
cially common  in  Southern  Italy,  and  was  practised 
there  and  in  Rome  as  late  as  the  thirteenth  century.  It 
is  found  in  the  cloisters  of  Monreale  (twelfth  century), 


FIG.  213.     MOSAIC  DETAILS,  PULPIT  IN  SAX  LORENZO  Fcow. 

in  Sicily,  and  in  those  of  San  Paolo  fuori  and  St.  John 
Lateran  at  Rome  (thirteenth  century).  Rome  became 
the  center  of  an  important  school  of  marmorarii  and  of  a 
great  industry  in  marble  mosaic,  and  its  artists  traveled 
far  to  execute  orders  for  church  furniture  and  cloister- 
arcades.  The  family  of  the  Cosmati  (from  Cosmatus 
or  Cosmas,  grandson  of  the  founder  of  the  school) ,  were 
especially  noted  for  several  generations,  and  their  name 
is  often  applied  to  the  combination  of  sectile  and  Alex- 
andrinum  which  they  used  and  developed  (Figs.  212, 
213  from  Ara  Coeli  and  San  Lorenzo  Rome.  See 
Chapter  XIV). 

200 


BASILICAN  ORNAMENT 

In  the  cloisters  above  mentioned,  in  the  Easter 
columns,  and  frequently  also  in  the  ambones  (Fig. 
212),  twisted  shafts  or  spiral  flutings  were  used.  The 
introduction  of  this  form  of  column,  theoretically  inap- 
propriate for  a  support,  into  Italian  art,  may  be  traced 
to  the  rich  but  ugly  twisted  column  now  in  St.  Peter's 
at  Rome,  brought  in  the  sixth  century  from  Jerusalem, 
where  it  was  believed  to  have  been  a  part  of  the  "Gate 
Beautiful"  where  St.  Peter  healed  the  lame  man  (Acts 
iii,  2-10) .  It  belongs  probably  to  the  decline  of  Roman 
Imperial  art,  much  later  than  St.  Peter's  time. 

E.    Ceilings. 

Not  one  of  the  ceilings  of  the  earlier  basilicas  remains 
to  us  in  its  original  form.  It  is  unlikely  that  in  churches 
resplendent  with  marble  and  mosaic  the  ceilings  were 
as  bare  and  barnlike  as  are  to-day  most  of  those  which 
have  not  been  entirely  remodeled  in  comparatively  re- 
cent times.  We  are,  however,  left  to  speculation  as  to 
their  precise  treatment.  The  painted  open-trussed 
ceilings  of  several  medieval  churches  of  the  eleventh  and 
twelfth  centuries  (Messina,4  Monreale,  San  Miniato 
near  Florence)  show  a  somewhat  similar  treatment 
though  belonging  to  different  styles,  which  points  to  the 
existence  of  a  strong  ancient  tradition  (see  Chapter 
XIV).  It  is  likely  also  that  in  some  cases  the  trusses 
were  concealed  by  a  decorative  ceiling  of  wood,  paneled 
in  coffers  with  rosettes,  after  the  fashion  of  many  Greek 
and  Roman  ceilings,  and  richly  painted  and  gilded. 
But  no  such  ceilings  remain  to  our  day.  It  may  be, 

*  Destroyed  in  the  earthquake  of  1909. 

201 


however,  that  the  splendid  ceiling  of  Sta.  Maria  Mag- 
giore  is  a  reproduction  or  imitation  of  the  original  of 
the  fifth  century. 

Vaulted  ceilings  were  chiefly  confined  to  baptisteries 
and  tombs.  The  earliest  of  these  are  the  dome  over  the 
central  space  and  the  annular  vault  over  the  encircling 
aisle  of  Sta.  Costanza  at  Rome,  erected  by  Constantine 
presumably  as  the  tomb  of  his  daughter  Constantia,  but 
from  early  times  used  as  a  baptistery.  The  decorations 
of  the  dome  have  perished,  but  among  the  well-preserved 
mosaics  of  the  aisle- vault  are  vintage  scenes  (Figure 
215),  apparently  pagan,  but  here  transferred  to  the 
service  of  Christian  symbolism;  and  geometrical  pat- 
terns combined  with  small  figure  subjects.  But  in 
nearly  all  domical  and  vaulted  buildings  after  the  fourth 
century  the  Latin  and  Byzantine  styles  are  one  and 
the  same,  and  the  ornament  of  such  buildings  will  be 
taken  up  in  the  chapter  on  Byzantine  art. 

From  the  preceding  paragraphs  it  may  be  rightly  in- 
ferred that  the  Early  Christian  builders  were  singularly 
lacking  in  architectural  inventiveness.  There  is  not  a 
single  structural  form,  not  an  architectural  innovation, 
not  an  ornament  of  purely  architectural  character,  that 
can  be  credited  to  their  initiative.  Their  art  was  sta- 
tionary and  unprogressive,  and  contrasts  surprisingly 
with  the  rapid  progress  and  splendor  of  achievement  of 
the  contemporary  Byzantine  art  in  the  Eastern  Empire. 

Books  Recommended: 

BUNSEN:  Die  Basiliken  des  christlichen  Roms  (Munich,  n.  d.). 
— ESSENWEIN:  Ausgange  der  klassichen  Baukunst  (in  Hand- 
buch  der  Architektur,  Darmstadt,  1886). — A.  L.  FROTHING- 

202 


1.1 


FIG.  214. — DETAIL  FROM  CLOISTER,  ST.  JOHN  LATERAN 


FIG.  215. — MOSAIC  IN  VAULT  OF  STA.  COSTANZA 


BASILICAN  ORNAMENT 

HAM:  Monuments  of  Christian  Rome  (New  York,  1908). — 
GERSPACH:  La  Mosa'ique  (jParis,  1889). — GUTENSOHN  AND 
KNAPP:  Denkmale  der  christlichen  Religion  (Rome,  1822-27). 
— HUBSCH:  Monuments  de  V architecture  chretienne  (Paris, 
1866). — PORTHEIM:  Uber  dem  dekorativen  Stil  in  der  altchrist- 
lichen  Kunst  (Stuttgart,  1886). — VON  QUAST:  Die  altchrist- 
lichen  Bauwerke  zu  Ravenna. — DE  Rossi:  La  Roma  Soter- 
ranea  Christiana  (Rome,  1864-77). — N.  H.  J.  WEST-LAKE: 
History  of  Design  in  Mural  Painting,  from  the  Earliest  Times 
to  the  12th  Century  (London,  1915). 


205 


CHAPTER  XIII 

BYZANTINE  ORNAMENT 

In  striking  contrast  to  the  architectural  poverty  of  the 
Latin  or  Western  ornament  of  the  early  church  stands 
the  architectural  richness  of  the  decorative  art  which 
grew  up  in  the  East  Roman  or  Byzantine  empire,  and 
which  was  founded  upon  and  largely  dominated  by  the 
architecture.  With  the  decline  and  fall  of  Rome,  the 
lamp  of  civilization  passed  to  Constantine's  eastern 
capital  on  the  Bosphorus  and  into  the  hands  of  the 
Byzantine  Greeks  of  Thrace,  Macedonia,  Asia  Minor 
and  Syria.  These  Greeks,  largely  Asiatic,  borrowing 
freely  and  impartially  from  classic  Greek,  Roman  and 
Asiatic  sources,  developed  with  singular  rapidity  in  the 
fifth  and  sixth  centuries  new  types  of  vaulted  construc- 
tion and  a  system  of  decoration  of  remarkable  original- 
ity and  beauty,  in  which  the  Oriental  love  of  brilliant 
color  and  surface  ornament  was  blended  with  the  Occi- 
dental appreciation  of  logical  construction  and  pure 
form.  This  Byzantine  art  culminated  under  Justinian 
(527-565)  ;  invaded  Italy,  especially  after  the  Byzantine 
conquest  of  Ravenna;  and  spread  through  the  entire 
extent  of  the  Byzantine  empire.  The  decline  that  set 
in  soon  after  the  brilliant  reign  of  Justinian  was  a  slow 
decline,  so  that  we  find  this  art  still  productive  in  the 

206 


BYZANTINE  ORNAMENT 

eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries.  Indeed,  St.  Mark's  at 
Venice,  one  of  its  most  brilliant  works,  dates  from  1047, 
while  offshoots  from  the  parent  stem  throve  for  cen- 
turies in  the  ecclesiastical  buildings  of  Russia  and 
Armenia,  and  later  in  the  impressive  mosques  of  the 
Ottoman  Turks. 

Leading  Characteristics. 

The.  Byzantine  system  of  design  and  decoration  was 
in  fundamental  prin- 
ciple like  the  Ro- 
man in  its  use  of  a 
decorative  skin  or 
veneer  of  marble, 
mosaic,  or  other  fine 
material  upon  a 
structural  mass  or 
core  of  brick,  con- 
crete or  like  coarser 
material.  The  chief 
difference,  structur- 
ally, was  in  the  use 
of  the  dome  on  pen- 
dentives  in  place  of 
groined  vaulting;  Fl°-  216-  DETAIL  ™>M  SPALATO. 
and  decoratively,  in  an  entirely  new  and  original  treat- 
ment of  detail.  For  the  classic  Roman  play  of  light 
and  shade  by  means  of  relief  carving  and  architectural 
features  the  Byzantines  substituted  a  system  of  decora- 
tion in  color  and  surface-etching,  reducing  all  surfaces 
as  nearly  as  possible  to  unbroken  planes  or  curves,  sup- 

207 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

pressing  all  avoidable  projections  and  recessings.  Mar- 
ble incrustations  and  pavements  were  used  with  even 
greater  splendor  than  in  Rome,  and  all  vaults  covered 
with  superb  mosaics,  or,  when  means  were  lacking  for 
the  more  splendid  adornment,  with  pictures  in  fresco  on 
plaster. 

Architectural  Ornament. 

Such  details  of  architecture  as  were  inherited  from 
classic  Roman  precedent  were  subjected  to  a  flatten- 


Fio.  217.     IMPOST  CAP,  S.  VITALE. 

ing  process  by  which  they  lost  all  their  strong  reliefs, 
high  lights  and  deep  shadows.  This  process  had  begun 
as  far  back  as  300  A.D.  in  the  Palace  of  Diocletian  at 
Spalato  (Fig.  216),  in  another  part  of  which  one  also 

208 


BYZANTINE  ORNAMENT 

observes  arches  carried  directly  on  columns,  as  in 
Byzantine  buildings.  In  the  Spalato  entablature,  by 
changes  of  profile  and  proportion  the  architrave  has 
been  exaggerated,  the  frieze  reduced  to  a  mere  molding, 
the  corona  to  a  fillet,  and  the  general  profile  of  the  cor- 
nice almost  to  a  45°  splay.  In  Hagia  Sophia,  the 
masterpiece  of  Byzantine  art,  we  find  a  similar  treat- 


Fio.  218.    CORINTHIANESQUE  CAP,  S.  APOLLINARE  Ntrovo, 
RAVENNA. 

ment  of  cornices  and  moldings,  while  capitals,  shafts, 
archivolts  and  all  other  features  depart  in  an  equally 
striking  degree  from  Roman  models  (Plate  XII,  1,  2). 

Impost  Blocks. 

The  Byzantines  invented  a  new  feature,  the  impost- 
block,  to  replace   the  bits   of  entablature  which  the 

209 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

Romans  in  their  vaulted  buildings  interposed  between 
the  capital  and  the  spring  of  the  vaulting.  The  Byzan- 
tine impost-block,  shaped  like  the  inverted  frustum  of  a 
pyramid  (Fig.  217;  Plate  XII,  3)  was  decorated 
with  monograms,  crosses,  lambs  or  other  symbols,  or  sur- 


Fio.  219.     "BASKET"  CAP,  S.  APOLLINAHE  Nuovo,  RAVENNA. 


face-carving.  The  capital  proper  sometimes  retained  a 
semblance  of  the  Corinthian  (Fig.  218)  or  Ionic 
type;  but  was  in  other  cases  greatly  simplified  in  mass 
and  covered  with  lace-like  or  basket-like  patterns,  some- 
times deeply  undercut — the  basket  type  Fig.  219 ;  Figure 
232,  page  221.  These  occur  alike  in  Ravenna,  Parenzo, 
Constantinople,  Salonica,  Venice  and  Syria.  In  the 
magnificent  capitals  of  the  great  columns  of  Hagia 
Sophia  the  impost-block  is  dispensed  with  (Plates  XII, 

210 


BYZANTINE  ORNAMENT 


2;  XIII,  2),  and  the 

-  vigorous  but  graceful 
mass  of  the  capital, 
with  its  corner  volutes 
and  surface  carving  of 
flat  acanthus-leaves, 
performs  adequately  its 
true  function  of  carry- 
ing the  heavy  arches 
that  rest  upon  it.  A 
frequently  occurring 
type  with  central  and 
corner  ridges  (Fig. 
219)  may  have  been 
suggested  by  uncut  or 
roughed-out  Corinthian 
caps,  blocked-out  in  this 
way  for  the  subsequent 
detailed  cutting  of  the 
central  rosettes  and  volutes  and  the  corner  volutes,  cau- 
licoli  and  leaves.1 

Shafts. 

Shafts  are  of  polished  marble,  granite  or  porphyry, 
sometimes,  as  in  Hagia  Sophia,  ringed  with  a  number 
of  astragals  or  annulets,  a  treatment  detrimental  to  the 
best  effect. 

Spandrels  and  Soffits. 

The  soffits  were  decorated  either  with  mosaic,  as  in 
S.  Vitale  at  Ravenna  and  the  upper  arcades  of  Hagia 

i  This  ingenious  and  plausible  suggestion  seems  to  have  originated  with 
the  late  Professor  W.  R.  Ware. 

211 


FIG.  220.  ABOVE,  CARVED  SPANDREL  FROM 
HAOIA  SOPHIA;  BELOW,  FRIEZE  FROM 
ST.  SERGITJS. 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

Sophia,  or  with  marble,  which  was  sometimes  carved  in 
bands  of  lace-like  patterns  as  in  the  lower  arcades  of 
Hagia  Sophia.  The  archivolt  was  marked  by  small 
moldings  (Plate  XII,  2).  Spandrels  were  commonly 
incrusted  with  marble  without  other  ornament,  as  in  St. 
Mark's;  sometimes  mosaic  or  fresco  was  used  in  either 
pictorial  or  arabesque  patterns  (Plate  XIII,  2),  or 
surface-carving  was  executed  on  the  marble  incrustation 
(Fig.  220).  The  nave  of  Hagia  Sophia  shows  both 
of  the  last  two  treatments. 

Carving. 

In  all  Byzantine  decorative  carving,  figure-sculpture, 
high  relief  and  indeed  true  relief  of  any  kind  are  singu- 
larly lacking.  In  their  place  the  Byzantine  artists  de- 


Fio.  221.     FRIEZE,  ST.  Jonx  STUDIOS,  COXSTAXTIXOPLE. 

veloped  a  system  of  carving  by  incision,  the  entire  pat- 
tern lying  in  one  plane,  so  designed  that  the  background 
formed  a  series  of  isolated  pits  or  depressions,  the  total 
effect  being  rich  and  highly  decorative  in  spite  of  its  flat- 
ness. The  patterns  were  chiefly  based  on  the  acanthus 
and  rinceau  (Figs.  220,  221,  222)  ;  but  the  leaves  and 
stems  were  flattened,  the  lobes  made  pointed,  the  pipes 
suppressed,  the  calyx-flowers  and  caulicoli  of  the  rinceau 

212 


BYZANTINE  ORNAMENT 

obliterated,  and  the  points  of  the  leaves  so  disposed  as 
to  touch  the  concave  sides  of  the  stems  of  their  neighbors, 
or  to  meet  each  other  point  to  point,  forming  innumer- 
able triangular  or  quadrilateral  pits  or  spots  of  back- 
ground. The  leaves  were  channeled  with  V-section 
channels,  and  the  whole  produced  an  effect  as  of  stone 
lace  work  applied  to  a  flat  background  (Figs.  224,  226) . 
The  origin  of  this  peculiar  treatment  of  classic  motives 
has  been  variously  explained.  Viollet-le-Duc  credits 


FIG.  222.       ACANTHUS  ANTHEMIONS.        FIG.  223. 

it  to  Syrian,  and  chiefly  to  Jewish  influence.  Early 
Christian  and  pre-Christian  tombs  in  Palestine  show  a 
somewhat  similar  style  of  dry  and  flat  surface-carving, 
with  frequent  use  of  the  vine-motive  which  is  also  com- 
mon in  Byzantine  ornament.  In  Central  Syria  inter- 
esting remains  from  the  third  to  sixth  centuries  also  dis- 
play kinship  with  Byzantine  work  (Fig.  240).  On 
the  other  hand,  the  same  tendencies  are  visible  in  the 
palace  at  Spalato  (see  ante,  Fig.  216)  in  Dalmatia, 
and  to  some  extent  in  works  of  Constantine's  time.  The 

213 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

most  probable  explanation  of  the  genesis  of  the  style, 
so  far  as  its  decorative  art  is  concerned,  is  found  in  the 
influence  of  the  Asiatic  Greeks,  who  would  most  natu- 
rally combine  the  Asiatic  love  of  surface  decoration  in 
minutely  detailed  all-over  patterns,  with  the  traditional 
motives  of  Greek  classic  and  Roman  art.  It  was  the 
rise  and  preeminence  of  Constantinople  in  the  sixth  cen- 


Fio.  224.     AXTHEMION  FKIEZE,  ST.  MARK'S,  VENICE. 

tury  under  Justinian,  that  gave  to  this  nascent  style  its 
first  great  impulse.  The  artificers  in  mosaic,  ivory- 
carving,  enamel  and  other  arts  from  Constantinople, 
many  of  whom  had,  during  the  preceding  century,  found 
their  chief  employment  in  Italy  and  other  foreign  coun- 
tries, were  now  abundantly  and  constantly  employed  in 
their  home  Capital.  Under  Justinian's  strenuous  and 
splendor-loving  rule,  the  arts  of  design  were  developed 
with  an  almost  feverish  activity.  The  flat  surface-carv- 
ing harmonized  better  with  the  flat  color-decoration  in 
marble  and  mosaic  than  the  more  vigorous  relief  of  the 

214 


BYZANTINE  ORNAMENT 

Roman  and  Greek  prototypes;  and  architectural  light- 
and-shade  was  treated  in  a  wholly  new  spirit,  and  the  old 
types  of  capital  and  entablature  gradually  disappeared. 

Moldings. 

The  profiles  were  weak;  effect  was  sought  by  enrich- 
ment rather  than  pro- 
filing; and  splay  faces 
covered  with  acanthus- 
leaves  frequently  occur 
(Fig.    222    and   Plate 
XII,    1, 
most 
molding 


2,    4).     The 

characteristic 

was  the  so- 
called  billet  molding, 
cut  into  small  blocks  or 
dentils,  often  in  two 
rows  in  which  the 
blocks  of  one  are  op- 
posite the  spaces  of  the 
other,  as  appears  in  the 
lower  part  of  1  in  Plate 
XII.  This  molding 
was  especially  used  for  framing  the  slabs  of  marble 
veneer,  and  contributed  strongly  to  the  general  effect  of 
a  sparkling  play  of  minute  spots  of  light  and  shade 
which  the  Byzantine  artists  loved. 

Bands  and  Borders. 

The  fret,  anthemion,  vine  and  rinceau  of  classic  art 
all  appear  in  Byzantine  borders  and  friezes,  but  in 

215 


FIG.  225.    CROSSES  AND  AKTHEMIONS. 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

modified  forms,  often  exhibiting  a  singular  reversion 
towards  earlier,  long- for  gotten  types  in  Greek  pottery. 
The  artists  of  the  sixth  to  twelfth  centuries  could  hardly 
have  known  or  even  seen  any  antique  Greek  vases,  and 
it  is  hard  to  explain  how  and  why  this  reversion  took 
place ;  it  most  probably  came  about  through  Roman  ver- 
sions of  the  anthemion  and  other  vase  ornaments,  sur- 


Fio.  226.     ACANTHUS  LEAVES  (above) ;  and  RINCEAU 
FROM  BISHOP'S. 

viving  in  Roman  carvings  and  mosaics  (compare 
Fig.  225  with  Fig.  135).  What  makes  this  rever- 
sion the  more  interesting  is  that  most  of  these  Byzantine 
anthemions  are  really  acanthus  leaves  in  disguise,  as 
may  be  seen  by  comparing  them  with  unmistakable 
acanthus  leaves  like  those  in  Figs.  218  and  221.  The 
Byzantine  carvers,  by  flattening  the  leaf  and  altering 
its  lobes,  gradually  worked  it  into  a  quasi-anthemion 
form,  and  then  under  a  similar  decorative  impulse  did 

216 


12 


F(g.Z29  Psacock  Fbnel  Idrcelb  Fi&230  Interlace  (Man). 
tig  JHJ  RrfbivtedfcnelSydale 


BYZANTINE  ORNAMENT 

with  it  much  as  the  Greek  pottery-painters  had  done 
with  the  anthemion  and  palmette,  nearly  or  quite  a  thou- 
sand years  earlier. 

The  Rinceau. 

This  has  already  been  alluded  to.  The  friezes  from 
St.  Sergius  (Fig.  220)  and  St.  John  Studios  (Emir 
Aklior  Jami)  at  Constantinople  (Fig.  221),  are  fine 
examples  of  the  typical  Byzantine  continuous  rinceau- 
movement  uninterrupted  by  calyx-flowers,  and  the 
merging  of  stem  and  caulicolus  into  one  flat,  flowing  leaf 
design;  while  in  Fig.  226,  b  it  is  seen  in  its  most  de- 
generate form,  in  a  carved  slab  from  the  Bishop's  Palace 
at  Ferentino.  The  vine  also  occurs  frequently,  espe- 
cially in  Italy,  singularly  recalling  painted  vine-patterns 
on  Greek  vases  (Fig.  227). 

Symbols. 

Symbolism  played  an  important  part  in  the  carved 
decoration  as  well  as  the  mosaics  of  the  Byzantines. 
The  vine,  already  alluded  to,  is  often  represented  as 
springing  from  the  Paschal  " 

cup  or  chalice  (Plate  XII, 
5 ) ;  the  cross  often  studded 
with  jewels  and  always 
with  spreading  ends  (Figs. 
225,  a,  b;  228  and  Plate  Fl0'  227'  VlNE  BoRDER'  s'  VlTAU!- 
XII,  3,  9) ;  the  cypress-tree,  symbol  of  the  grave,  and 
hence  of  the  mystic  burial  of  baptism  (see  ante,  page 
189),  and  in  this  sense  carved  on  baptismal  fonts  and 
plutei  and  elsewhere  in  baptisteries  (Fig.  228)  in  a  form 

219 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 


singularly  like  an  anthemion;  the 
peacock,  as  the  symbol  of  the  soul 
(Figure  229;  Plate  XII,  9)- 
these  are  the  most  frequently  re- 
curring symbols.  An  effective 
decoration  for  square  or  circular 
panels  was  devised  by  making  the 
four  arms  of  the  cross  frame  four 
acanthus-anthemions,  as  in  Fig. 
225,  a  from  Hagia  Sophia. 

In  later  work,  especially  in 
Italy  where  Lombard  influence 
may  account  for  it,  monsters  and 
grotesques  sometimes  appear.  It 
is  curious  to  note  how  often  pea- 
cocks (as  in  Figure  229;  Plate 
XII,  9) ,  lions  or  monsters,  even  griffins,  as  in  the  exam- 
ple from  Sta.  Maria  Pomposa  (Figure  235)  are  placed 
symmetrically  at  the  base  of  a  cross  or  tree,  recalling  a 
favorite  device  of  Greek  and  Roman  art,  derived  origi- 
nally from  Assyrian  and  Hittite  prototypes.2 


FIG.    228.      DETAIL    OF 
CROSS  IK  FIG.  225. 


Guilloches  and  Interlace. 

The  Byzantine  artists  expanded  the  ap- 
plications of  the  Greek  guilloche-motive 
into  a  whole  system  of  interlaced  patterns, 
in  which  squares,  lozenges  and  circles, 
large  and  small,  are  combined  with  great 
variety  and  ingenuity.  The  more  elab- 


Fio.  230A. 


2  See  Figure  34  and  cf.  Goblet  d'Alviella,  "The  Migration  of  Symbols," 
pages  122-140. 

220 


BYZANTINE  ORNAMENT 

orate  examples  belong  to  the  later  developments. 
Some  of  the  most  complex  designs  are  found  in  Ar- 
menia, where  they  almost  rival  the  Celtic  interlaces  (see 
page  271 ).  Whether  these  are  due  to  Celtic  manuscripts 
carried  into  Armenia,  or  whether  the  Celtic  interlaces 
were  themselves  descended  from  Byzantine  sources  is 
not  clear  (Fig.  230A;  Figures  230,  231 ;  Plate  XII,  10) . 
Perforated  panels  were  a  special  delight  of  the  Italo- 
Byzantine  designers ;  they  are  found  chiefly  at  Ravenna, 
serving  as  parapet-panels.  Figure  231  shows  a  detail 
of  one  of  the  most  splendid  of  these  remarkable  works 
(see  also  Plate  XII,  9). 

Floors  and  Incrustations. 

The  rich  and  varied  marbles  of  the  East  supplied 
abundant  materials  for  decorative  pavements  and  wall- 
veneers.  In  principle  these  resemble  those  of  the  Latin 
buildings;  guilloche-patterns  or  borders  frame  large 
circles  or  rectangles  of  marble,  porphyry  and  verd-an- 
tique  in  the  floors ;  while  thin  slabs  of  veined  marble  set 
so  as  to  form  symmetrical  veining-patterns,  encrust  the 
walls  up  to  the  spring  of  the  main  arches  and  vaults  ( Fig. 
209;  Plate  XII,  1).  The  monotony  of  their  smooth 
surfaces  was  broken  by  the  billet-moldings  with  which 
the  slabs  and  bands  were  framed.  The  composition  of 
this  wall-paneling  was  not  always  good;  the  apse  of 
Hagia  Sophia,  for  example,  is  a  jumble  of  panels  with 
little  or  no  organic  system  in  their  arrangement.  The 
general  effect,  however,  of  this  veneering  in  veined 
marbles  is  always  rich  and  yet  sober;  and  in  St.  Mark's 
at  Venice  it  reached  the  highest  perfection  of  internal 
harmony. 

221 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 


Mosaic. 

The  crowning  splendor  of  Byzantine  decoration  was 
in  its  mosaics.  These  at  first 
differed  in  no  wise  from  the 
Latin  (see  page  196),  which 
were,  indeed,  probably  executed 
in  many  cases  by  Byzantine  ar- 
tists. But  the  domes  and  vaults 
of  the  East  gave  special  oppor- 
tunities for  the  application  of 
this  noble  form  of  decoration, 
and  these  were  freely  availed 
of.  Conventional  ornament  was 
made  to  play  a  far  more  im- 
portant role  in  the  Byzantine 
than  in  the  basilican  churches, 


Fio.  233.     FROM  HAGIA 
SOPHIA. 


though  figure-subjects 
and  pictures  still  form  the 
chief  decoration.  Hagia 
Sophia  and  the  Kahrie 
Mosque  (once  a  Byzan- 
tine church  called  Mone 
tes  Choras)  at  Constan- 
tinople and  the  two 
churches  of  San  Apolli- 
nare,  the  Episcopal  pal- 
ace and  San  Vitale  at 
Ravenna  offer  the  finest 
examples  of  this  art,  the 
cubes  or  tessera?  of  glass 
being  very  small,  espe- 


222 


FIG.  234.     SARCOPHAGUS   END, 
RAVEXHA. 


FIG.  235.— FROM  STA.  MARIA  POMPOSA  FIG.  236.— MOSAIC,  TOMB  OF  GALLA 

PLACIDIA 


FIG.  237. — IVORY  THRONK  OF  BISHOP  MAXIMIAN,  RAVENNA 


BYZANTINE  ORNAMENT 

cially  in  the  first-named.  One  of  the  earliest  examples 
of  the  application  of  glass  mosaic  of  this  type  to  vault- 
ing is  the  tomb  of  Galla  Placidia,  the  daughter  of  Theo- 
dosius,  at  Ravenna;  the  barrel- vaults  of  the  cross  arms 
and  the  rude  dome  of  the  central  lantern  being  adorned 
with  remarkably  effective  pictures  and  patterns,  some 
on  a  blue  and  some  on  a  gold  ground  (Figure  230). 
The  gold  ground  predominates  in  Hagia  Sophia  and  in 
some  other  examples  and  imparts  a  richness  of  effect  not 
otherwise  attainable  (Plate  XIII). 

In  many  Byzantine  mosaic  pictures  there  appear  rep- 
resentations of  shrines,  niches  and  other  architectural 
subjects  derived  from  sarcophagi,  church  furniture  and 
minor  structures  of  which  no  trace  has  survived.  Simi- 
lar forms  are  seen  in  manuscript  illuminations  and  in 
ivory  carvings  and  sarcophagi  (Fig.  236). 

Church  Furniture. 

Few  examples  remain  of  this  branch  of  decorative 
design  for  which  the  Byzantines  were  so  celebrated. 
The  accounts  of  the  furniture  of  Hagia  Sophia  given 
by  Paul  the  Silentiary  describe  an  almost  incredible 
splendor  of  jewels,  gold  and  silver.  The  most  impor- 
tant work  of  this  sort  in  metal  now  extant  is  the  "Pala 
d'Oro"  or  silver-and-gold  altar-piece  of  St.  Mark's  in 
Venice,  by  Constantinople  artists  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury (but  much  altered  in  more  recent  times).  Plate 
XII,  8,  figures  the  end  of  an  Italo-Byzantine  silver  chest 
in  Florence.  Of  works  in  marble  there  exists  in  the 
basilica  of  S.  Apollinare  in  Classe  at  Ravenna  a  By- 
zantine baldaquin  or  ciborium,  and  in  Venice  the  much 

225 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

later  ciborium  of  St.  Mark's,  besides  a  fine  octagonal 
canopy  and  pulpit  in  the  north  aisle.  In  the  cathedral 
of  Ravenna  the  ivory  throne  of  Bishop  Maximianus  is 
carefully  preserved  (sixth  century,  Figure  237) .  Ivory 
carving,  indeed,  was  one  of  the  special  arts  of  Byzan- 
tine civilization;  book-covers,  diptychs  and  triptychs  in 
this  material  exist  in  museums  and  private  collections. 
Ivory  was  a  precious  material  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and 
the  art  displayed  in  these  small  works  combined  the 
pictorial  composition  of  the  manuscript  illuminators 
with  the  technic  and  the  ornament  of  the  marble-carvers, 
but  with  more  freedom  in  the  relief.  The  cross,  pictorial 
scenes  and  grapevine  borders  of  the  throne  of  Maxim- 
ianus just  referred  to,  are  precisely  in  the  style  of  the 
diptychs,  though  on  a  larger  scale. 

In  many  of  the  minor  works  of  church  equipment  and 
furniture  enamel  was  used  with  or  without  the  accom- 
paniment of  gems  in  elaborate  settings,  to  impart  rich 
color  to  the  object  decorated.  The  field  of  each  color 
was  slightly  hollowed  out  in  the  metal — silver,  gold  or 
copper — and  in  this  shallow  pool  the  separate  colors 
were  fused  in  the  furnace.  This  process,  called 
champleve  enameling,  was  carried  in  the  path  of  Byzan- 
tine trade  to  France  where,  at  Limoges,  an  important 
center  of  this  art-industry  was  developed  in  the  twelfth 
to  fourteenth  centuries.  Fig.  238  represents  the 
Crown  of  Charlemagne,  a  fine  example  of  late  Byzan- 
tine goldsmith's  work  of  the  ninth  century.  There  are 
in  various  libraries  highly  ornate  book-covers  in  gold, 
enamel  and  precious  stones  of  the  ninth  to  twelfth  cen- 
turies. 

226 


BYZANTINE  ORNAMENT 

Textile  Ornament. 

The  arts  of  weaving  and  embroidery  were  highly  de- 
veloped by  the  Byzantine  civilization,  which  delighted 


FIG.  238.    THE  CROWST  OF  CHARLEMAGXE. 

in  splendor  of  official  apparel.  Byzantine  stuffs,  fabrics 
and  embroideries  are  found  in  many  museums,  mostly 
those  of  the  later  phases  of  the  art  (ninth  to  twelfth 
centuries).  Fig.  239  shows  an  example  from  the 
Museum  of  Bamberg. 

Manuscript  Illumination. 

Christianity  has  been  called  the  religion  of  a  book. 
In  no  other  religion  has  the  written  word  played  so 
important  a  part.  Long  before  the  final  fixing  of  the 
canon  of  the  New  Testament,  individual  books — gospels, 
epistles,  writings  by  the  early  Fathers — were  being 

227 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

multiplied  by  skilful  scribes  and  widely  circulated  by 
missionaries.  The  development  of  monasticism  stimu- 
lated the  production  of  books  and  led  to  the  establish- 
ment of  schools  of  calligraphists  and  miniaturists  or 
illuminators.  With  increasing  veneration  for  the  sacred 
writings  there  came  increasing  splendor  in  the  manu- 
scripts, which  were  embellished  by  pictures,  illuminated 
initials  and  decorative  borders.  In  this  new  art  the  By- 
zantine Greeks  showed  the  highest  skill,  and  the  result 
was  the  final  domination  of  the  Byzantine  taste  and 
style  in  this  field,  as  in  the  closely  allied  art  of  mosaic 
picturing  and  ornament. 

The  initial  letters  of  chapters  or  books  were  made 
into  ornamental  designs  covering  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  the  page,  and  painted  with  brilliant  red,  blue, 
green  and  gold,  often  with  accompaniments  of  an  archi- 
tectural character  with  or  without  figures.  Illustrations 
of  scriptural  scenes  and  allegorical  compositions  were 
often  introduced,  covering  an  entire  page.  In  these 
the  drawing  and  coloring  followed  the  formulas  that 
governed  the  design  of  like  figures  in  mosaic  and  fresco 
decorations  of  the  churches;  formulas  that  became 
hieratic  and  were  finally  written  down  in  inflexible  rules 
that  have  survived  to  modern  times  in  the  monasteries 
of  Mt.  Athos,3  and  in  the  icons  of  the  Russian  churches. 
This  stiff  and  conventional  style  of  painting  was  the 
parent  of  Italian  religious  painting  in  the  Middle  Ages ; 
and  indeed  of  all  Christian  medieval  painting,  architec- 
tural as  well  as  in  manuscripts.  For  the  Byzantine 
manuscripts  were  scattered  through  the  monasteries  and 

3  Cf.  Crowninshield,  "Mural  Painting." 

228 


Carvings  from  Chbrch&s  ot  J^lokhcta  ancl  Chonamta;  Georgia. 

FIG.  241. — GEORGIAN  AND  ARMENIAN  CARVING 


BYZANTINE  ORNAMENT 


FIG.  239.    BYZANTINE  FABRIC, 
BAMBERG. 

ern  myths,  even  those  of 
pagan  origin,  to  supply 
motives  for  elaborate  in- 
terlaces in  borders  and  in- 
itials. 

Syrian  Christian 
Ornament. 

In  Syria,  Christian  art 
took  on  a  special  form  in 
the  absence  of  the  brick, 
timber,  marble  and  glass 
on  which  Latin  and  By- 
zantine art  so  largely  de- 
pended for  artistic  ex- 
pression. The  buildings 
of  central  Syria  show  a 


churches  of  Western  as 
well  as  Eastern  Europe, 
and  formed  the  models 
from  which  both  the 
Celtic  and  Scandinavian 
schools  of  manuscript 
decoration  took  their  ear- 
ly inspiration.  In  these 
interlace,  which  is  a  sub- 
ordinate element  in  the 
Eastern  models,  became  a 
dominant  feature,  though 
it  made  use  of  the  North- 


FIG.  240.    SYRIAN  CARVING. 


231 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

dry,  restricted  style  of  stone  carving,  akin  in  its  flatness 
to  the  Byzantine,  making  much  use  of  geometric  patterns 
and  retaining  classic  details  only  in  forms  so  changed 
as  to  be  little  more  than  travesties  of  the  originals,  as 
at  Kelat  Seman,  Rouheiha,  Tourmanin,  etc.  In  cer- 
tain cities,  however,  Byzantine  artists  introduced  marble 
and  mosaic,  as  in  the  famous  Golden  Church  at  Antioch, 
no  longer  extant.  The  Moslem  conquest  under  Omar 
(638)  put  an  end  to  the  life  of  Syrian  Christian  art  and 
resulted  in  the  destruction  of  most  of  the  Christian 
churches.  (Figure  240,  from  Tourmanin  and  Ba- 
kouza. ) 

Russian,  Georgian  and  Armenian  Ornament. 

The  Eastern  Church,  in  the  Balkan  peninsula,  and  in 
what  is  now  the  Russian  Empire,  including  Georgia  and 
Russian  Armenia,  highly  interesting  phases  of  Byzan- 
tine art.  Aside  from  the  singular  architecture  of  the 
Russian  churches  with  high  pinnacled  lanterns,  this  art 
is  especially  rich  in  manuscript  illumination,  enameled 
and  jeweled  silver-  and  goldsmith's  work,  and  surface 
carving.  In  this  last  department  of  design  intricate  in- 
terlaces suggest  the  reacting  influence  of  the  Celtic 
manuscripts;  although  it  is  possible  that  both  may  hark 
back  to  a  common  derivation  from  the  simpler  interlaces 
of  early  Byzantine  art  in  Constantinople.  They  fre- 
quently betray  also  the  influence  of  Moslem  art  and  have 
a  strongly  Oriental  character  throughout. 

Figure  241  exhibits  a  number  of  examples  of  this 
architectural  carving  from  Mokheta  and  Chouamta  in 
Georgia  and  Gelathi  in  Armenia. 

232 


BYZANTINE  ORNAMENT 

Books  Recommended: 

BYZANTINE 

As  before,  ESSENWEIN,  GERSPACH,  HUBSCH,  VON  QUAST. 
Also,  BAYET:  L'Art  byzantin  (Paris,  n.  d.). — H.  C.  BUTLER: 
Architecture  and  other  Arts  in  Northern  Central  Syria  (New 
York,  1903). — A.  DEHLI:  Selections  of  Byzantine  Ornament 
(New  York,  1890). — DIEHL:  Manuel  de  I'art  byzantin  (Paris, 
1910). — G.  G.  GAGARIN:  Sbornik  bisantiskikh  i  drevnerusskikh 
ornamentor  (St.  Petersburg  [Petrograd],  1887). — Moscow 
MUSEUM  OF  ART  :  Histoire  de  I'ornement  russe  du  Xm*  au  XVIme 
sietcle  d'apres  les  manuscrits  (Paris,  1870). — ONGANIA:  La 
basilica  di  San  Marco  (Venice,  1881-88). — R.  P.  PULLAN:  On 
the  Decoration  of  Basilicas  and  Byzantine  Churches  (Papers  of 
the  R.  I.  B.  A.;  London,  1875-76). — SALZENBERG:  Die  alt- 
christlichen  Baudeukmale  von  Constantino  pel  (Berlin,  1854). — 
N.  SIMAKOV:  L'Ornement  russe  (St.  Petersburg  [Petrograd], 
1882). — TEXIER  AND  PULLAN:  Byzantine  Architecture  (Lon- 
don, 1865). — VIOLLET-LE-DUC :  L'Art  russe  (Paris,  1877). — 
DE  VOGUE  :  Syrie  Centrale  (Paris,  1865-77). 


233 


CHAPTER  XIV 

ROMANESQUE  ORNAMENT 
1.  ITALIAN  AND  FRENCH 

A  strictly  chronological  treatment  of  ornament  his- 
tory might  be  held  to  require  taking  up  at  this  point  the 
beginnings  of  Mohammedan  ornament;  but  a  due  re- 
gard for  continuity  prescribes  rather  the  following  of 
the  current  of  European  Christian  art  through  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  before  taking  up  the  diverging  art  of  the  Mos- 
lems, which  will  therefore  be  reserved  for  another  vol- 
ume. 

The  name  Romanesque  has  been  so  widely  applied  to 
the  various  phases  of  European  art  in  its  transition  from 
the  Latin  and  Byzantine  phases  to  the  so-called  Gothic, 
that  it  will  be  retained  in  this  discussion.  It  is,  indeed, 
not  an  inappropriate  term,  since  the  art  of  Italy  and 
Western  Europe  from  about  the  ninth  to  the  thirteenth 
century  sprang  from  roots  easily  traced  back  to  pri- 
mary sources  in  the  art  of  classic  Rome. 

The  Romanesque  Period. 

Throughout  all  Europe,  except  in  parts  of  the  Byzan- 
tine Empire,  the  centuries  from  the  fall  of  Rome  to  the 
twelfth  constituted  a  period  of  chaos,  upheaval,  and 
gradual  evolution.  War,  famine,  and  pestilence  re- 

284 


15 


FIG.  243. — ALTAR  FRONT,  FERENTINO 


FIG.  244.     DETAIL  FROM  FRONT  OF 
SAN  MICHELE,  LUCCA 


FIG.  245. — FALSE  WINDOW,  SAN 
STEFANO,  BOLOGNA 


ROMANESQUE  ORNAMENT 

peatedly  devastated  Italy;  the  Arabs  and  Moors  over- 
ran Sicily  and  Spain  and  threatened  France;  there  was 
commotion  and  turmoil  among  the  German  and  Scandi- 
navian tribes,  who  poured  over  the  lands  occupied  by  the 
older  civilizations.  Out  of  this  chaos  Christian  insti- 
tutions were  slowly  emerging,  and  it  was  the  Church 
which  first  reared  its  majestic  form,  appearing  as  the 
one  universal  and  invincible  fact,  everywhere  claiming 
supreme  authority  and  divine  power.  Of  its  two  chief 
manifestations,  the  papacy  and  the  monastic  system,  the 
last  was  nearer  the  people,  visible  and  tangible,  and  in 
the  confusion  of  warring  authorities  it  gained  steadily 
in  favor  and  influence.  Uneasy  souls  gave  or  be- 
queathed to  the  monasteries  treasures  of  land  and 
money ;  peace-loving  souls  fled  to  them  as  asylums  from 
war  and  oppression,  and  the  great  monastic  brother- 
hoods multiplied  their  chapters,  grew  rich,  built  churches 
and  cherished  such  arts  and  such  learning  as  the  Church 
demanded  or  favored.  Architecture,  decorative  reli- 
gious sculpture  and  carving,  manuscript  illumination 
and  other  decorative  arts  flourished  in  the  monasteries 
as  they  grew  in  wealth  and  the  centuries  brought  in- 
creased peace  and  order. 

As,  in  the  preceding  ages,  there  was  a  marked  differ- 
ence between  the  art  of  Eastern  and  Western  Chris- 
tendom, so  in  this  Romanesque  period  Italian  art  dif- 
fered in  important  ways  from  that  of  France  and  west- 
ern Europe.  That  of  Germany  stood  midway  between 
the  two,  the  Italian  Lombard  influence  predominating. 
But  in  all  these  styles  Byzantine  influence  is  discernible, 
exerted  through  the  medium  of  those  artistic  products 

237 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

for  which  Constantinople  was  famous,  manuscripts, 
ivory-carvings,  ecclesiastical  goldsmith's  work  and  em- 
broideries. Mosaic,  however,  was  never  in  demand  in 
the  West;  form  rather  than  color  dominates  Roman- 
esque art,  and  the  resources  of  the  abbeys  and  parishes 
were  bestowed  upon  large  and  spacious  edifices  rather 
than  upon  such  costly  adornments  as  that  of  mosaic. 

Italian  Romanesque  Ornament. 

Italy  being  not  a  state  but  a  group  of  states  and  prov- 
inces, there  appear  at  least  five  more  or  less  distinct 
styles  in  her  early  medieval  art ;  the  Basilican  or  Latin 
in  Rome  and  its  neighborhood ;  the  Byzantine  in  Venice, 
Ravenna  and  on  the  East  coast  generally;  the  Tuscan 
in  Etruria  (Tuscany)  from  Pisa  to  Florence  and  even 
Siena;  in  the  South,  especially  in  Sicily,  the  Siculo- 
Arabic,  a  compound  of  Arabic,  Byzantine,  Latin  and 
Norman  elements;  and  in  the  North  the  Lombard,  in 
which  the  Germanic  spirit  of  the  race  which  overran 
northern  Italy  in  the  seventh  century  expressed  itself 
in  new  forms  and  combinations. 

But  while  these  may  be  properly  called  distinct  styles, 
they  so  frequently  overlap  and  mingle  that  it  is  not 
always  easy,  nor  indeed  reasonable,  to  classify  a  given 
building  definitely  in  one  of  these  categories.  The 
unity  of  the  Church,  the  migrations  of  monks  and  other 
ecclesiastics  and  especially  of  builders  and  carvers,  con- 
tributed to  a  constant  blurring  of  the  boundary  lines  of 
these  styles. 

The  Basilican  and  Byzantine  styles  have  been  already 
discussed,  but  in  many  examples  from  the  other  styles 

238 


ROMANESQUE  ORNAMENT 

their  influence  is  clearly  seen  in  various  details.  More- 
over, these  two  styles  in  their  later  manifestations  un- 
derwent developments  and  changes,  from  the  influence 
of  Western  art,  which  differentiate  them  from  their  ear- 
lier phases.  Basilicas  of  the  Latin  type  continued  to 
be  built  until  the  thirteenth  century,  and  the  art  of  the 
mosaicist  in  opus  Alexandrinum  was  developed  in  great 
splendor  by  successive  generations  of  the  Cosma  family 
and  their  apprentices,  in  altars,  pulpits,  and  other  archi- 
tectural applications,  so  that  this  sort  of  inlaid  geometric 
mosaic  is  commonly  known  as  Cosmati  work.  Roman 
artists  carried  it  into  southern  Italy  and  Sicily,  where 
it  mingled  with  the  Siculo-Arabic  work.  The  ex- 
amples referred  to  in  Chapter  XII,  and  illustrated  in 
Figs.  211-213,  may  be  compared  with  the  altar-front 
from  Ferentino  in  Figure  243  and  the  columns  from 
Monreale  in  Figure  249.  In  Florence  especially,  ex- 
amples of  the  persistence  of  this  art  may  be  seen  in  va- 
rious details  of  the  cathedral  and  Giotto's  campanile 
(Figure  394). 

Tuscan  Romanesque. 

In  Pisa,  Lucca,  Pistoia  and  the  neighborhood  there 
was  developed  in  the  llth-13th  centuries  an  ecclesias- 
tical style  based  on  the  basilican  plan  but  dressed  in  an 
architectural  apparel  of  black  and  white  marble  in 
stripes,  adorned  with  purely  decorative  arcades;  re- 
cessed arches  springing  from  pilasters  against  the  lower- 
story  walls,  and  superposed  tiers  of  free  arches  on 
columns  in  the  upper  stories  of  the  front.  Inlaid  pat- 
terns, chiefly  geometric,  adorned  the  tympana  and 

239 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

spandrels  of  the  lower  arches  (Fig.  242).  Carving 
was  sparingly  used,  but  the  capitals  were  carefully 
carved  on  classic  models,  and  the  shafts  sometimes 
carved  with  rinceaux  of  equally  classic  character  (Ca- 
thedral and  Baptistery  of  Pisa,  eleventh  century) .  In 
Lucca  the  Cathedral  and  the  later  church  of  S.  Mi- 


FIG.  242.     IN-LAID  PATTERN'S,  PJSA  CATHEDRAL. 

chele  (Figure  244)  show  rich  inlays  of  black  on  white, 
with  fantastic  grotesques,  due  perhaps  to  Lombard  in- 
fluence which  is  also  seen  in  some  of  the  columns,  and  in 
the  lions  or  monsters  which  serve  as  bases  to  columns  in 
many  churches.  Some  of  the  carving  at  Lucca  sug- 
gests Byzantine  influence.  The  use  of  striping  in  dark 
marble  and  of  inlay  is  seen  as  far  east  as  in  Bologna. 
Figure  245  shows  a  window  of  the  Baptistery  of  S. 
Stefano,  where  Byzantine  influence  appears  in  the  inter- 
laces of  the  perforated  panels  set  in  the  striped  wall. 
The  richly  carved  lintels  of  doors  in  the  church  of  S. 
Giusto,  Lucca  (Figure  246),  show  the  mixture  of  influ- 
ences which  impinged  on  art  in  Tuscany. 

In  Florence  and  San  Miniato,  paneling  in  black  and 
white  takes  the  place  of  striping — a  less  correct  treat- 

240 


1  O 


FIG.  246. — LINTEL,  SAN  GIUSTO,  LUCCA 


FIG.  247. — DETAIL,  PAVEMENT  OF  BAPTISTERY,  FLORENCE 


ROMANESQUE  ORNAMENT 


ment  structurally  though  more  decorative.  In  some 
churches,  especially  in  the  Baptistery  at  Florence  and 
in  San  Miniato,  the  pavements  show  inlaid  patterns  in 
black  and  white  which  could  hardly  be  surpassed  for 
decorative  beauty  (Figure  247).  Altar  and  altar-rail 
at  S.  Miniato  are  treated  with  inlays  of  the  same 
sort. 

The  style  was  occasionally  imitated  in  remote  cities, 
as  at  Troja  in  southeast  Italy,  where  the  cathedral  is 
decorated  with  recessed  arcades  after  the  Pisan  manner. 

The  Siculo-Arabic  Style. 

The  Arab  conquest  of  Sicily  and  the  subsequent  ex- 
pulsion of  the  Mohammedans  by  the  Crusaders,  with  the 
establishment  of  a  Norman 
kingdom,  and  the  persist- 
ence of  Byzantine  tradi- 
tions, all  combined  to  de- 
velop a  singularly  mixed 
but  effective  style  of  decora- 
tion. The  Arabic  pointed 
arch,  inlaid  marble  wain- 
scot with  a  serrated  parapet-cresting  after  the  fashion 
of  Cairo,  Byzantine  glass-mosaic  on  the  upper  walls  and 
occasional  vaults,  are  conspicuous  in  such  edifices  as  the 
cathedrals  of  Monreale  (Figure  248),  the  Martorana 
and  Palatine  chapels  at  Palermo,  and  others.  Latin  or 
''Cosmati"  mosaics  inlaid  in  twisted  shafts  adorn  the 
cloisters  of  Monreale  (Figure  249;  see  also  Figure  214) , 
and  some  of  the  pulpits  and  altars.  The  open-timber 
ceilings  are  richly  painted  and  gilded ;  Cufic  inscriptions 

243 


FIG.   250.    CUFIC   DECORATION, 
PALERMO. 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 


FIG.   251.    DETAIL  FROM    BRONZE   DOORS, 
MONHEALE  CATHEDRAL. 


appear  in  these 
(Fig.  250)  and 
Arabic  geometric 
interlace  in  the 
pavements.  The 
bronze  doors  are 
by  North  Italian 
artists  (Fig.  251), 
and  here  and 
there  even  Lom- 
bard details  occur. 
Color  appears  ev- 
erywhere, in  Ori- 
ental profusion. 
Except  in  the  cap- 
itals, many  of  which  are  antique,  carving  is  little  used, 
but  some  of  the  cloister  capitals  at  Monreale  are  fine 
examples  of  decorative  sculpture,  showing  both  Norman 
and  Byzantine  influences  (Figure  248 ).1  It  was  a 
brilliant,  confused,  and  short-lived  style. 

Lombard. 

This  style  was  not  confined  to  Lombardy ;  it  prevailed 
through  Emilia  and  as  far  east  as  Verona,  and  south 
even  into  Calabria  and  Apulia.  The  Lombards,  a  Ger- 
manic race  by  origin,  introduced  into  Italian  art  an 
entirely  new  note  of  solemnity  and  somber  humor,  ex- 
pressed in  the  rugged  massiveness  of  their  churches  and 
the  grotesques  in  their  carving.  They  contributed  to 
architecture  decorative  forms  and  devices  which  spread 

i  The  spirnl  and  zigzag  flirtings  shown  in  Figure  249  were  originally  filled 
with  Cosmati-work  of  inlaid  mosaics. 

244 


into  western  Romanesque  art.     Among  these  were  the 
arcade  cornice    (Fig.  252),  long  pilaster  strips — flat, 
semi-cylindrical,  or  spirally  twisted ;  the  round  or  wheel- 
window  (Figure  253),  the  col- 
umn   resting   on    a   monster's 
back;    the     splayed    doorway 
adorned  with  many  columns  in 
the  jambs  and  with  successively 
recessed  or  stepped  arches  above 
the   door-lintel    (Figure   254). 
The    open    arcade   under   the    FIG.  252.   AHCADED  CORN- 
eaves      of      many      Lombard      ^E,  s.  MAETIKO,  PALAIA. 

churches  is  a  part  of  the  architecture  rather  than  orna- 
ment. Many  of  these  features  are  common  in  the 
French  and  Germanic  Romanesque,  though  they  origi- 
nated in  Italy.  There  was  a  constant  interchange  be- 
tween the  Benedictine  monasteries  of  these  countries; 
the  Crusades  brought  Western  hordes  into  Italy,  and 
such  commerce  as  there  was  aided  the  dissemination  of 
architectural  ideas  as  well  as  of  commodities.  More- 
over the  maestri  comacini,  the  skilled  masons  and  carvers 
organized  into  guilds  of  traveling  artisans,  were  almost 
wholly  recruited  from  the  North  Italian  country,  and 
they  carried  their  art  into  remote  regions  of  Italy  and 
into  other  lands. 

Grotesques. 

The  medieval  "bestiaries,"  of  which  copies  have  come 
down  to  our  day,  prove  the  symbolic  significance  of 
many  of  the  grotesque  sculptures,  each  beast  and  part 
of  a  beast  having  a  specific  meaning,  so  that  each  com- 

245 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

bination  of  heterogeneous  parts  to  form  a  grotesque 
monster,  signified  a  particular  combination  of  definite 
ideas,  as  in  a  symbolic  language.  But  the  medieval 

sculptors  of  Lom- 
bardy,  with  imagi- 
nations saturated 
with  the  medieval 
superstitions  which 
peopled  air,  earth 
and  sea  with  count- 
less invisible  be- 
ings, mostly  mal- 
efic, loving  to  blast 
and  blight  every 
perfect  and  beauti- 
tiful  thing,  but 
which  could  be  di- 
verted by  charms, 
incantations  and 
symbols,  and  even 
by  marring  in  ap- 
pearance the  seem- 
ing perfection  of 
a  human  work 2 — 
these  Germanic 
Italians  of  the 
North  treated  with 
a  species  of  humor- 
ous decorative  art  the  wild  and  fantastic  symbols  and 

2  This  superstition  survives  in  a  real  but  attenuated  form  in  the  jettatura 
of  Italy  and  the  "evil  eye"  of  the  Eastern  Mediterranean. 

246 


FIG.  255.     CAP  FROM  AUHONA;  SYMBOLS  OF 

EVANGELISTS  OK  A  PCLPIT;  CENTAUR 

FROM  SAN  AMBHOGIO,  MILAN. 


ROMANESQUE  ORNAMENT 

talismans  which  grew  out  of  this  superstition   (Fig. 

255). 

Other  Forms. 

Not  a  little  of  the  Italian  ornament  of  the  Roman- 
esque period  is  hard  to  classify  under  any  particular 
style-name,  being  the  product  of  local  or  of  conflicting 
influences.  Thus  the  wheel-windows  show  considerable 
variety.  The  marble  perforations  of  the  Cathedral  of 
Troja  suggest  Oriental  prototypes,  while  the  traceries 
of  those  of  S.  Pietro  and  of  Sta.  Maria  at  Toscanella 
are  designed  on  quite  different  principles.  Certain 
Italian  manuscripts  of  this  period  betray  the  hand  or 
influence  of  Irish  scribes.  This  variety  of  stvle  in 

V  •> 

Italian  Romanesque  art  presents  an  interesting  contrast 
to  the  impressive  unity  of  general  effect  in  Western,  es- 
pecially French,  work  of  the  same  period. 

THE  FRENCH   ROMANESQUE 

General  Character. 

French  Romanesque  ornament  is  completely  domi- 
nated by  the  monastic  architecture.  Previous  to  about 
1020  architecture  in  France  was  extremely  crude,  ex- 
cept in  Provence,  while  Roman  traditions  still  imparted 
a  certain  elegance  to  ecclesiastical  buildings.3  By  1000 
A.  D.  the  feudal  system  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  monastic 
on  the  other,  had  attained  coherent  form,  and  were  domi- 
nant over  the  developments  of  the  nascent  civilization. 
Architecture  was  chiefly  military  and  monastic,  and 
while  the  feudal  lords  built  strong  castles,  the  monks 

8  Consult  ReVoil,  "Architecture  romane  du  Midi  de  la  France:"  plates. 

249 


were  learning  to  build  stone 
churches  with  vaults.  In 
the  absence  of  antique  ruins 
to  serve  as  quarries  of  ready- 
made  decorative  material, 
and  without  either  models  or 
trained  artisans  for  the  pro- 
duction of  mosaic,  carving 
and  inlay,  the  arts  of  decora- 
tion had  to  be  created  anew. 
The  art  that  slowly  emerged 
from  this  destitution  was  a 
struggling  art,  at  first  crude 
in  design  and  execution.  To 
its  earliest  phase  the  French 
give  the  name  of  Carolingian 
art.  The  architecture  was 
massive,  thick- jointed,  spar- 
ing in  ornament  except  about 

FIG.    256      DETAILS   FROM   CHURCH tne    doOl'WayS,    at    which    the 
OF  ST.  PAUL-TROIS-CHATEAUX.  _  » 

builders'  highest  art  was  be- 
stowed. As  the  eleventh  century  advances,  this  art  be- 
comes finer,  richer,  more  knowing,  still  vigorous  but  bet- 
ter in  technic;  the  accessory  arts  multiply  and  grow  in 
perfection.  There  developed  a  certain  unity  of  general 
style  throughout  France,  controlled  to  a  remarkable  ex- 
tent by  a  rigid  logic  of  construction.  More  than  in  any 
previous  style  in  any  land,  the  forms  not  merely  of  the 
structure  proper,  but  also  of  its  decoration,  were  deter- 
mined by  the  special  exigencies  of  materials  and  struc- 
tural science.  Although  provincial  schools  appear  in 

250 


ROMANESQUE  ORNAMENT 


the  architecture  (Provence,  Charente,  Auvergne,  Bur- 
gundy, Normandy,  Ile-de-France)  the  decorative  de- 
tails do  not  vary  greatly.  True,  the  Byzantine  influ- 
ence is  more  clearly  traceable  in  some  districts,  the  clas- 
sic in  others,  especially  in  Provence  (Fig.  256),  but 
it  requires  a  closer  discrimination  to  detect  these  pro- 
vincial variations  in  the  ornament  than  in  the  architec- 
ture, in  the  details  than  in  the  composition,  and  far  more 
than  is  required  to  classify  Italian  ornament  of  the  same 
period.  This  is  due  to  the  dominance  of  the  great  mon- 
astic orders,  especially  of  the  Benedictines;  uniformly 
skilful  artists,  they  tended  to  develop  a  common  style 
wherever  they  established  their  abbeys. 

Architectural  Ornament:  Columns  and  Capitals. 

The  French  Romanesque  column  is  a  descendant  from 
the  classic  column,  modified  by  its  new  uses  as  a  mem- 
ber of  a  compound  pier  or  as  a  jamb-shaft  or  nook-col- 
umn in  a  door  or  window.  Lombard  or  comacine  influ- 
ences seem  to  have  had  a  share  in  its  development.  The 
shaft  is  straight,  without  en- 
tasis or  taper  (Figure  257)  ; 
sometimes,  in  late  doorways, 
richly  carved  with  geometric 
patterns  (Figure  260).  The 
base  is  of  the  Attic  type, 
often  with  corner-leaves 
( Figure  264 ).  The  capitals 
are  generally  of  the  Corinthian  type,  but  with  a  heavy 
abacus  added,  and  the  proportions  and  details  modified 
in  innumerable  ways  (Figure  265;  Plate  XIV).  At 

251 


FIG.    264.    BASEO 
SPURS. 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 


Moissac  they  have  a  decidedly  Byzantine  character. 
The  introduction  of  grotesques,  both  human  and  bestial, 
gave  rise  to  new  types  (Figures  259,  261).  Occasion- 
ally a  species  of  cushion  capital  is  used,  especially  in 
Normandy,  the  upper  part  square,  with  a  heavy  abacus ; 

the  lower  part  scalloped  or 
convex-fluted  once  or  more 
times  on  each  face.  A  very 
beautiful  double  capital  is  pre- 
served in  the  Museum  at  Tou- 
louse (Plate  XIV,  1).  An- 
other double  cap  is  Number 
2  in  the  same  Plate,  from 
Chalons-sur-Marne.  The  con- 
trast in  style  illustrates  the 
difference  between  the  carving 
of  Provence,  with  strong  By- 
zantine tinge,  and  that  of  the 
Ile-de-France  in  the  North. 
Some  of  the  earlier  work  is 
hewn  out  with  the  mason's-ax ; 

later  the  chisel  comes  into  more  general  use,  and  the 
established  types  are  greatly  varied  by  the  introduction 
of  figures,  jewel-studded  bands,  and  foliage  of  new 
types.4  In  Plate  XIV,  3,  4,  5,  the  Corinthian  tradition 
is  clearly  shown  in  all  the  capitals. 

Carving;  Bands  and  Panels. 

The  classic  acanthus-leaf,  rinceau,  and  even  anthe- 
mion  appear  constantly  in  various  modifications,  and  in 


FIG. 


265.    LATE    ROMANESQUE 
CAPITAL,  PARIS. 


*  Consult   article   "Sculpture"   in    V.-le-Duc 
1'architecture." 

252 


;'Dictionnaire    Raisonnd    de 


ROMANESQUE  ORNAMENT 

Provence  the  fret  is 
used  as  a  carved  run- 
ning ornament,  as  at 
St.  Gilles.  The  acan- 
thus-leaf and  rinceau 
preserve  in  some  cases 
an  extraordinarily 
classic  character,  even 
in  comparatively  late 
examples,  suggesting 
direct  copying  from 
antique  fragments 
(Avallon,  Fig.  267, 
St.  Denis,  etc.). 
Even  late  in  the 
twelfth  century  the 
Roman  tradition 
sometimes  appears 
very  strong  in  carved 
rinceaux,  as  in  Figs. 
266,  268.  But  gen- 
erally the  classic  tra- 
dition was  gradually 
lost,  and  a  sort  of  naturalism  began  to  creep  in,  though 
not  yet  the  direct  copying  of  Nature.  The  rinceau  has 
a  round  stem  but  no  wrapping-leaves ;  the  stem  is  fluted 
or  ridged  to  suggest  the  bark ;  the  branches  spring  from 
it  like  grafts,  with  little  ridges  around  their  starting- 
places  ;  the  leaves  are  still  strongly  conventional  but  not 
at  all  like  acanthus-leaves,  having  rounded  lobes  and 
spoon- like  hollows ;  they  are  broad  and  massive,  and  the 

255 


FIG.  266.     CARVED  RINCEAU:  UPPER,  FROM 
MANTES;  LOWER,  FROM  VAISON. 


A  HISTQBJBOF  ORNAMENT 


FIG.  267.     AC- 
ANTHUS 

LEAVES    FROM 
AVALLOX. 


entire  IJsidto  is  carved  in  high  relief  and 
sometimes  weeply  undercut  (Figs.  266, 
268).  The  double  rinceau  sometimes  ap- 
pears, enclosing  the  large  leaves  in  ovals 
or  in  heart-shaped  openings  (Fig.  269). 
In  almost  all  cases  the  rinceau  represents 
the  grape-vine  and  its  ecclesiastical  sym- 
bolism is  obvious. 

The  framed  anthemion,  so  common  in 
Byzantine  carving,  hardly  occurs  in 
French  Romanesque  friezes  or  bands. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century, 
however,  we  find  in  its  place,  and  evidently 
descended  from  it>  an  ornament  consisting  of  broad 
fluted  triple  or  five-lobed  leaves  enclosed  by  branching 
leaves  often  adorned  with  jewels. 
Sometimes  the  central  leaf  of  the 
trilobe  is  carried  up  under  the  fram- 
ing leaves  and  curled  over  it  (Fig- 
ure 262).  This  motive  seems  to 
have  come  in  from  Germany,  and  is 
frequently  found  in  painted  orna- 
ment, both  on  walls  and  on  manu- 
scripts. 

In  certain  regions  along  the  paths 
of  Byzantine  and  Lombard  influ- 
ence, beasts  and  human  figures  are 
shown  twined  into  the  convolutions 
of  the  rinceau  (Plate  XIV).  Ar- 
cading  as  a  decorative  external  fea- 
ture never  attained  in  France  the 

256 


FIG. 


268.     UIXCEAU, 

AVALLON. 


ROMANESQUE  ORNAMENT 

importance  it  achieved  in 
northern  Italy.  The  two 
most  noted  examples  are 
the  fronts  of  Notre  Dame 
at  Poitiers  and  of  the 
Cathedral  of  Angouleme 
(about  1130).  These  be- 
tray Italian  and  Byzan- 
tine influence;  the  arches 
are  not  free  as  at  Pisa, 
but  attached  to  (or  re- 
cessed in)  the  wall,  fram- 
ing statues,  windows  or 
reliefs.  Internally,  how- 
ever, wall-arcades  occur 
frequently,  especially  as 
decorations  of  the  side- 
aisle  walls  under  the  win- 
dows; such  arcades  are 
called  arcatures.  In 
Normandy  the  arches  are 
sometimes  interlaced,  and 
this  device  was  later 
adopted  in  England  and  is  common  in  Anglo-Norman 
churches. 


FIG.  269.    DOUBLE  RINCEAU, 
NOTRE    DAME,    PARIS. 


Moldings. 

With  the  new  types  of  building  a  new  art  of  molding- 
profiles  begins  to  appear.  Whether  its  origin  is  in  the 
Lombard  doorways  or  is  local,  its  development  was  con- 
trolled by  that  logic  of  structure  to  which  allusion  has 

257 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

already  been  made,  and  which  specially  distinguishes 
French  Romanesque  architectural  art.  All  arches  being 
stepped,  and  their  square  edges,  as  already  described, 
cut  into  roll-moldings  between  chamfers,  there  resulted 
in  doorways  and  pier-arches  an  alternation  of  plane, 
hollow  and  convex  surfaces  which  proved  extremely  ef- 
fective (Figures  257,  258).  Out  of  this  simple  treat- 
ment was  developed  a  more  elaborate  system  of  varying 
hollows,  rolls  and  flat  surfaces,  which  the  English  Gothic 
artists  were  to  carry  in  later  times  to  the  highest  per- 
fection (see  Chapter  XVIII).  In  contrast  with  the 
classic  tradition,  according  to  which  all  important  mold- 
ings project  from  the  general  surface,  the  medieval 
builders  developed  the  contrary  system  of  moldings  cut 
into  the  surface.  The  exception  is  in  the  projecting 
drip-moldings  which  defined  the  extrados  of  the  arch  on 
exterior  walls,  especially  over  doorways. 

Doorways. 

As  a  general  rule  the  outer  step  or  "order"  of  a  series 
of  stepped  doorway-arches  was  brought  down  upon 
an  inpost  carried  by  a  column  set  flush  with  the  outer 
face  of  the  wall,  or  upon  the  square  pier  formed  by  the 
wall  itself.  Sometimes,  however,  it  was  returned  into 
the  wall,  as  in  Figure  258,  or  abutted  into  projecting 
members,  as  in  Figure  259.  Each  "order"  of  the  series 
of  diminishing  arches  was  carried  by  its  own  distinct 
supports,  whether  columns  (jamb-shafts)  or  piers,  as 
in  Figures  257,  258.  The  various  orders  were  either 
plain,  with  roll-moldings,  as  already  explained,  or 
carved  with  enrichments  often  of  great  splendor  of  ef- 

258 


19 


ChartiesCaJh 

Fig '259  From  flngoulemeGtih  Fig 261  From  J/.  Pierre  d flu/nay 


ROMANESQUE  ORNAMENT 

feet.  It  was  upon  the  church  doorways 
that  the  monastic  artists  lavished  their 
richest  ornaments.  In  the  North,  geo- 
metric motives  were  especially  promi- 
nent, and  among  these  the  zigzag  was 
particularly  favored  in  Normandy  (d 
in  Fig.  270),  cut  into  the  face  of  the 
arch,  or  into  the  soffit,  or  both;  the 
"broken-stick"  ("batons-rompus") ,  the 
lozenge  and  dog-tooth  or  pyramid  (i) 
are  also  common.  Byzantine  influence 
is  discernible  in  the  billet  (e,  Fig.  270), 
and  in  the  flat  treatment  of  figure-re- 
liefs in  the  tympanum  as  at  Carrenac 
(Figure  257).  Imbrications  (g), 
checkers  (6),  "nail-heads,"  foliage- 
forms  and  grotesques  are  also  of  fre- 
quent occurrence.  Figures  261,  from  St.  Pierre  at 
Aulnay,  and  258  from  Rouen  Cathedral  (Porte  St. 
Jean)  show  the  extraordinary  richness  of  some  of  these 
Romanesque  doorways.  The  Rouen  example  belongs 
to  the  early  13th  century  and  is  therefore  early  Gothic, 
but  it  is  still  full  of  the  spirit,  and  shows  many  of  the 
details,  of  the  Romanesque. 

Horizontal  moldings  receive  but  little  emphasis  in 
French  Romanesque  ornament,  and  there  are  no  dis- 
tinctly typical  horizontal  moldings,  except  those  of  the 
Attic  bases  of  the  columns  already  mentioned.  Hori- 
zontal bands,  however,  are  not  uncommon,  richly  carved, 
often  with  anthemions  or  palmettes  (Fig.  271)  which 
betray  the  ever-present  Byzantine  influence.  In  place 

261 


I  6 


FIG.    270.       RO- 
MANESQUE OB- 

NAMENTS. 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 


FIG.  271.    CABVED  BANDS! 
FBOM  ST.  AUBIK,  ANGERS. 


of  the  classic  cornice  the  monastic 
builders  had  only  the  Lombard 
arcaded  cornice,  or  the  more  elab- 
orate corbel  table.  In  minor  posi- 
tions the  simplest  copings  with  one 
or  two  moldings  suffice. 

Corbel  Tables. 

These  may  have  originated  in 
the  classic  modillion-cornice,  or 
they  may  have  been  evolved  out  of 
the  necessity  of  providing  a  pro- 
jecting shelf  at  the  top  of  the  wall. 
In  Provence  (Southern  France)  the  first  is  doubtless 
the  correct  explanation,  as  the  corbel-table  of  the  gable 
over  the  porch  of  St.  Trophime  at  Aries  has  corbels 
carved  with  the  acanthus  in  evident  reminiscence  of 
classic  modillions.  In  Central  and  Northern  France 
the  corbels  are  usually  grotesques  of  masks  or  monsters. 
In  some  cases  they  are  found  in  conjunction  with  the 
Lombard  arcaded  cornice,  particularly  in  Auvergne  and 
in  Southern  France.  Corbels  for  other  purposes  than 
the  support  of  a  corbel-table  were  of  varied  forms,  often 
resembling  capitals  with  a  "drop"  or  "cul-de-lampe"  at 
the  bottom,  formed  either  of  foliage  or  of  figures  or  gro- 
tesques. 

Figure  Sculpture. 

It  was  during  this  period  that  the  French  began  the 
development  of  that  wonderful  art  of  decorative  sculp- 
ture which  they  carried  to  so  marvelous  a  height  of  artis- 

262 


ROMANESQUE  ORNAMENT 

tic  beauty  in  the  portal-sculptures  of  their  Gothic  cathe- 
drals, at  Chartres,  Amiens  and  Reims.  At  first  they 
were  contented  with  reliefs  in  the  portal  tympanium 
(Figure  257)  but  free  statues  were  later  set  in  the  deep 
jambs  of  the  portals,  representing  saints  and  apostles 
and  martyrs :  this  practice  appears  to  have  begun  about 


FREJTCH  ROMANESQUE  GROTESQUE. 


the  middle  of  the  12th  century  (Figure  260).  By- 
zantine and  classic  influences  and  traditions  dominate  in 
the  earlier  sculpture  (Plate  XIV,  3,  5)  ;  but  the  French 
soon  impressed  upon  all  their  sculpture,  whether  of  stat- 
ues, reliefs  or  grotesques,  the  stamp  of  their  own  orig- 
inal genius  (Fig.  272;  Plate  XIV,  7).  Both  in  tech- 
nical execution  and  in  appropriateness  to  its  architec- 
tural setting,  these  later  Romanesque  sculptures  mark 
the  opening  of  a  new  chapter  in  decorative  art. 

Painted  Decoration. 

The   scanty  remains  of  the  painted  decoration  in 

263 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

French  Romanesque  churches  indicate  a  prevailing  sim- 
plicity, marked  by  effective  composition  with  rather 
crude  coloring  and  execution.  The  painted  ornament 
was  generally  restricted  to  certain  well-defined  portions 
of  the  edifice,  such  as  the  apse  and  chapels.  Wall  sur- 
faces were  marked  with  conventional  masonry  joints  or 
simple  quarries,  spangles  or  diapers  in  red  ochre  and 
black;  sometimes  the  effect  was  varied  by  painted  wall- 
arcades  and  representations  of  wall-draperies  with  con- 
ventional folds.  Columns  were  striped  or  painted  with 
chevrons  or  zigzags  in  red,  dark  green  and  yellow  or 
gold,  and  the  capitals  were  enriched  in  the  same  colors. 
Figure  painting  was  rare;  when  employed  it  was 
strongly  Byzantine  in  character,  like  the  contemporary 
manuscript  pictures,  as  at  St.  Ceneri,  or  Ste.  Rade- 
gonde,  Poitiers.  Leaf-forms  were  sometimes  used  for 
borders  and  narrow  bands. 

Accessory  Arts. 

In  iron-work,  tiles  and  wood-carving  the  French  mo- 
nastic artists  executed  works  of  considerable  merit,  em- 
ploying generally  forms  akin  to  the  architectural  orna- 
ment or  else  inspired  from  Byzantine  models ;  but  they 

by  no  means  equaled  the  variety 
and  richness  of  the  Italian  deco- 
rators. Figure  263  shows  a 
door  knocker  of  the  12th  cen- 
tury, from  a  cast  in  the  Troca- 
museum'  At  Limoges 


FIG.   273.     LEAF   PATTERN,   there  Was  a  flourishing  School  of 

a,  ST.  OMEB.         workers  in  enamel  by  the  chant- 

264 


•'  I 


ROMANESQUE  ORNAMENT   ° 

pleve  process.  In  this  work,  as  in  the  other  minor  arts, 
the  Byzantine  influence  is  prominent.  Fig.  273  is  a 
characteristic  leaf-detail  from  the  red-and-brown  tiling 
in  the  cathedral  of  St.  Omer.  The  tile  floors  of  chan- 
cels and  chapels  of  the  late  Romanesque  period  were 
often  of  great  elegance,  in  simple  and  effective  patterns 
in  buff,  red,  brown  and  black. 

Books  Recommended: 

As  before,  HUBSCH.  Also:  BAUM:  Romanesque  Architecture 
in  France  (London,  1912). — CAHIER  AND  MARTIN:  Melanges 
d'archeologie  (Paris,  1868). — CATTANEO:  U  Architecture  en 
It alie  (Venice,  1890). — COURAJOD:  Lemons  professees,  etc. 
(Paris,  1903). — CUMMINGS:  A  History  of  Architecture  in  Italy 
(Boston,  1901). — DE  DARTEIN:  Etudes  sur  V architecture 
lombarde  (Paris,  1882). — DEHIO  AND  BEZOLD:  Die  Kirchliche 
Baukunst  des  Abendlandes  (Stuttgart,  1887-1901). — F.  M. 
HESSEMER:  Arabische  und  alt-it alienische  Bauverzierungen 
(Berlin,  1842). — LECOY  DE  LA  MARCHE:  Les  manuscrits  et  la 
miniature  (Paris,  1886). — E.  MOLINIER:  L'Orfevrerie  civile  et 
religieuse  du-  Fe  a  la  fin  du  X^sie'de  (Paris,  1899). — Musee  de 
sculpture  comparee  du  Trocadero  (Paris,  no  date). — F.  OSTEN: 
Bauwerke  in  der  Lombardei  (Frankfort,  n.  d.). — H.  REVOIL: 
Architecture  romane  du  Midi  de  la  France  (Paris,  1867). — 
ROHATTI/T  DE  FLEITRY:  Les  Monuments  de  Pise  (Paris,  1866). — 
E.  E.  VioKLET-LE-Duc :  Dictionnaire  raisonne  de  V architecture 
francaise,  etc.  (Paris,  1868). 


265 


CHAPTER  XV 

ROMANESQUE  ORNAMENT 

II.    ANGLO-NORMAN,  GERMAN,  SPANISH  AND 
SCANDINAVIAN 

Anglo-Norman  Ornament. 

Previous  to  the  Norman  conquest  of  England  in 
1066,  the  architecture  of  that  country  was  of  the  crudest 
description,  and,  the  ornament  of  the  style,  the  so-called 
Saxon,  was  so  rude  and  scanty  as  hardly  to  deserve  men- 
tion. With  the  incoming  of  the  new  and  foreign  ele- 
ment, however,  there  began  a  remarkable  development, 
both  architectural  and  decorative ;  and,  as  is  so  often  the 
case,  the  result  of  the  blending  was  in  some  respects 
more  brilliant  than  even  the  stronger  of  the  parent  styles. 
While  the  Norman  (more  properly  "Anglo-Norman") 
architecture  derived  its  chief  inspiration  from  French 
Norman  models,  it  rapidly  diverged  from  them  into  a 
strongly  national  style  in  which  carved  decoration  was 
very  liberally  employed.  This  Anglo-Norman  orna- 
ment is  remarkable  for  its  vigor,  variety  and  effective- 
ness. Its  fundamental  elements  were  comparatively 
few,  and  chiefly  of  French  origin,  but  it  was  more 
abundant  and  varied  in  its  details  and  applications. 

Norman  Columns. 

The  bases,  of  the  Attic  type,  have  spur-leaves  some- 
times but  not  always;  the  shafts  are  usually  plain,  but 

266 


ROMANESQUE  ORNAMENT 

sometimes  carved  with  zigzags,  spiral  flutings,  or  large 
quarry-patterns  (as  at  Durham).  The  capitals  are 
rarely  of  the  Corinthianesque  type  (Fig.  274;  Plate 
XV,  5) ,  except  in  late  instances  under  French  influence. 
The  prevailing  type  is  the  cubic  or  cushion  type  (Fig. 
275) ;  next  the  foliated  or  Corinthianesque,  and  the  least 
frequent  are  the  grotesque  capitals.  Sometimes  two 


Fio.    574.    CAPITAL 

FROM  LINCOLN 

CATHEDRAL. 


Fio.   275.    CAPITAL   FROM   ST.   PETER'S, 
NORTHAMPTON. 


types  are  combined  side  by  side,  as  in  Plate  XV,  1.  The 
abacus  is  heavy,  molded,  sometimes  carved  with  saw- 
teeth, zigzags  or  other  ornaments.  The  scalloped 
cushion  type  is  also  very  common  (Plate  XV,  3) .  Cor- 
bels are  either  plain  or  grotesque. 

Doorways,  Arches  and  Moldings. 

The  doorways  are  often  extremely  rich,  especially 
after  1130.  The  zigzag  is  the  ornament  most  fre- 
quently used;  it  is  carved  on  each  of  several  arch-steps 
and  sometimes  carried  down  the  jambs  in  lieu  of  nook- 

267 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 


FIG.  276.    ORNAMENTS  FROM 
IFFLKY  CHURCH. 


shafts,  as  at  Iffley. 
Zigzags  on  the  face  and 
soffit  of  an  arch  are  ar- 
rayed to  produce  al- 
ternate pyramids  and 
lozenge-shaped  holes ;  al- 
ternate zigzags  are  con- 
vex and  concave  in 
section.  Saw-teeth,  star- 
flowers  and  pyramid  jew- 
els abound  (Fig.  276). 
Round  jewels  or  "nail- 
heads"  are  applied  in  hollow  moldings,  and  rosettes 
or  flowers  are  not  uncommon.  Another  characteristic 
ornament  is  the  beak-head, — a  grotesque  bird's  head  with 
enormous  beak,  applied 
to  the  voussoirs  of  an 
arch,  the  beak  pointed  in- 
wards, and  sometimes 
spanning  several  mold-  fy 
ings  (Fig.  277).  Gro- 
tesques occur  in  arch  or- 
naments, but  rarely.  The 
billet-molding  also  oc- 
curs occasionally,  but  usu- 
ally with  round  billets  in- 
stead of  square. 

The  effect  of  the 
crowded  ornament  of  the 
Anglo-Norman  doorways 
is  often  extremely  rich, 


FIG.    277.    BEAK-HEAD    MOLDING, 
IFFLEY  CHURCH. 


268 


ROMANESQUE  ORNAMENT 

the  multiplied  points  of  light  on  projecting  details  show- 
ing brilliantly  against  the  dark  shadows.  Famous  ex- 
amples of  such  doorways  are  those  of  Iffley  Church, 
Barfreston  Church  and  the  Prior's  Door  of  Ely  Cathe- 
dral, and  many  others. 

Arcatures  are  of  frequent  occurrence,  usually  with  in- 
terlaced arches.  These  are  found  sometimes  even  on 
the  exterior,  though  more  usually  employed  for  interior 
walls  (Fig.  278). 

Other  Carved  Ornament. 

Free  figure  sculpture  is  almost  unknown,  but  figures 
in  relief  are  sometimes  seen,  and  grotesques,  both  human 
and  animal  are  very  frequent.  Foli- 
age is  rare,  and  when  it  occurs  is 
highly  conventional  and  very  simple. 
The  anthemion  motive  is  not  uncom- 
mon (Fig.  279) ;  it  is  obviously  of 
Byzantine  derivation  by  way  of  the 
French  Romanesque.  Interlace  is  oc- 
casionally met  with,  probably  due  to 
Celtic  influence. 

Painted  ornament  appears  to  have  been  occasionally 
used  in  the  chancels  and  wooden  roofs  of  churches,  but 
extant  examples  are  very  rare.  That  of  the  east  end  of 
St.  Cross  Church,  near  Winchester,  discovered  late  in  the 
last  century  and  restored,  shows  simple  conventional  pat- 
terns in  red  ocher  and  black.  The  ceiling  of  Peterboro' 
reproduces  the  painted  lozenge-pattern  of  the  original 
which  it  replaces.  That  of  Ely  is  also  a  modern  decora- 
tion based  on  Norman  precedents. 

269 


FIG.    278.     INTER- 
LACED  ARCHES. 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 


Fonts;  Metalwork. 

A  few  "Saxon"  or  pre-Norman  fonts  have  been  pre- 
served, all  of  crude 
workmanship,  the 
more  elaborate 

among  them  suggest- 
ing an  effort  to  copy 
Byzantine  details. 
The  Norman  fonts 
are  of  better  work- 
manship, cut  in  stone 
or  cast  in  lead,  usu- 
ally in  the  form  of 
a  square  or  round 
bowl  on  a  short  shaft 
(or  several  shafts) 
and  base,  and  quite 
frequently  adorned 
with  figure  subjects, 
poorly  executed.  The  Byzantine  influence  is  often  evi- 
dent in  the  Norman  fonts,  some  of  which  resemble 


FIG.  279.    CARVED  ANGLO-NORMAN  AN- 

THEMIONS:       FROM       ST.       SAVIOR'S,      SoUTH- 

WAHK  (ABOVE);  HEREFORD  CATHEDRAL  (BE- 


Fio.  280.     CELTIC  Mss.  INITIALS. 
270 


ROMANESQUE  ORNAMENT 


Venetian-Byzantine  well- 
curbs.  Metal  work  does  not 
appear  to  have  been  carried 
to  an  advanced  degree  of 
perfection  in  this  period. 
The  celebrated  bronze  can- 
dlestick of  Gloucester  Ca- 
thedral is  evidently  of  for- 
eign, probably  of  Italian,, 
workmanship.  It  is  of  an 
alloy  of  bronze  and  silver. 
(But  see  below.) 


FIG.  282.    COVER  OR   SHRIXE  FOR  ST. 
PATRICK'S  BELL. 

271 


FIG.  281.    CELTIC  INTERLACES. 


Celtic  Ornament. 

The  artists  in  the 
Irish  monasteries  de- 
veloped a  remarkable 
skill  in  certain  depart- 
ments of  decorative 
art,  notably  and  fore- 
most, in  manuscript  il- 
lumination; almost  to 
an  equal  degree  in 
ecclesiastical  metal- 
work.  Interlace  of 
an  extraordinary  in- 
tricacy is  a  character- 
istic of  their  art  in 
both  fields.  In  this 
they  display  a  close 
kinship  of  spirit  with 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

Scandinavian  art,  in  which  the  representation  of  the 
Great  Tree  Yggdrasil,  whose  branches  cover  Earth, 
Heaven  and  the  Underworld,  are  interlaced  with  the 
convolutions  of  the  serpent  or  dragon  Nithhoggr. 
Whether  these  interlaces  originated  in  the  North  or  were 
developed  from  Byzantine  interlace  it  is  difficult  to  de- 
cide. Fig.  280  illustrates  various  forms  of  Celtic  inter- 
lace initials;  Fig.  281  shows  carved  interlaces  and  the 

curious  spiral  ornament  called 
the  "trumpet  pattern."  Fig. 
282  is  the  famous  shrine  or  cover 
of  the  iron  bell  of  St.  Patrick, 
decorated  with  jewels  and  inter- 
laced filigree  of  flat  silver  wires; 
while  Fig.  283  shows  one  quar- 
ter of  the  cumdach  or  case  made 
for  the  Molaise  Gospels,  of  sil- 
ver on  bronze  with  jewels  and 
the  grotesque  symbolic  lion  of 
St.  Mark.  This  is  dated  about 
1020.  The  bell  shrine  is  later. 
The  Celtic  crosses  serving  as  grave  stones — particu- 
larly the  so-called  "high  crosses"  present  the  best  ex- 
amples of  Irish  stone-carving.  The  cross-arms  are  con- 
nected by  a  circle,  and  the  angles  between  them  cut  into 
by  curved  notches;  the  flat  faces  and  often  the  sides  of 
the  stone  are  covered  with  patterns  (rarely  with  figures 
as  at  Monasterboice)  in  low  relief;  the  patterns  show  the 
characteristic  interlaces,  often  very  complex  and  elabo- 
rate. Such  a  cross  is  shown  in  Plate  XV,  16. 


FIG.   283.    ONE    QUARTER 

OP  COVER  OP  MOLAISE 

GOSPELS. 


272 


ROMANESQUE  ORNAMENT 

German  Romanesque  Ornament. 

In  Germany,  as  in  France  and  England,  architectural 
decoration  may  be  said  to  have  its  real  beginning  in  the 
eleventh  century,  the  earlier  works  being  crude  and  al- 
most bare  of  ornament.  The  architectural  awakening 
began  in  Saxony,  but  its  most  brilliant  and  prolific 


FIG.  284.    CAPITALS  FROM  GERNBODE. 

achievements  were  in  the  Rhine  provinces,  where  a  truly 
splendid  style  of  church  architecture  grew  up  in  the 
llth-13th  centuries,  in  which  the  ornament  is  remark- 
able for  its  admirable  propriety  and  its  force  and  rich- 
ness of  design.  It  would  be  hard  to  find  better  capitals 
in  any  of  the  medieval  styles  than  those  of  these  Rhenish 
minsters,  and  the  carving  of  grotesques  fully  equaled 
that  in  any  other  country.  The  decorative  forms  are 
all  of  foreign  origin,  French,  Lombard  and  Byzan- 
tine, but  combined  with  remarkable  skill  and  wealth 
of  fancy.  The  medium  of  transmission  of  these  vari- 

273 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

ous  influences  is  complex;  commerce,  the  interchange 
between  Eastern  and  Western  monasteries,  the  circula- 
tion of  Byzantine  and  Irish  manuscripts  and  Byzantine 

ivories  and  ecclesiastical 
work,  and  other  causes,  all 
united  in  giving  form  to  the 
German  Romanesque  types. 
The  Byzantine  is  the  strong- 
est influence  in  the  details  of 
the  ornament ;  the  acanthus- 
anthemion,  jeweled  bands 
and  shallow  surface  carving 
are  frequent  (Plate  XVI, 

Fio.  285.  FROM  WUBTTEMBEBG.  4>  5>  1Q>  12>  15)  .  The  Ger- 
man capitals  vary  from  strongly  Byzantine  types  to  al- 
most Gothic  foliage.  Thus  the  cap  from  Gernrode 
(Fig.  284)  shows  Byzantine  massiveness  with  its  im- 
post-black and  jeweled  bands.  Fig.  285  shows  a  capital 
on  an  octagonal  shaft  with  molded  abacus  and  a  some- 
what free  and  loose  treatment  of  the  Byzantine-Roman- 
esque framed  anthemion  motive.  The  zigzag  occurs  oc- 
casionally, and  grotesques  abound,  not  only  in  capitals 
and  corbels  but  also  in  shafts,  bands  and  other  places. 
The  execution  of  most  of  the  ornament  is  excellent. 

The  Lombard  influence  appears  in  the  grotesques, 
though  these  often  give  evidence  of  independent 
German  design,  but  also  in  such  architectural  fea- 
tures as  the  deeply-splayed  doorways  (Fig.  286, 
from  Heilsbronn),  the  arcaded  cornices,  pilaster- 
strips  and  open  arcades  under  the  eaves  of  apses  and 
sometimes  of  fa9ades.  At  Rosheim,  in  Alsace,  is  a 

274 


ROMANESQUE  ORNAMENT 

church-front  of  almost  pure  Italian  or  Lombard  design. 

The  arts  of  metal  were  practised  with  skill.     Both 

wrought-iron  and  cast  bronze  were  employed  for  grilles, 

gates,  hanging  lamps  or  crown-lights  and  for  candela- 


FIG.  286.     PORTAL  FROM  HEILSBHONK. 

bra  and  church  vessels.  Gold,  silver  and  enamel  were 
also  employed  for  richer  and  finer  products  (of  which 
an  early  example,  perhaps  of  real  Byzantine  manufac- 
ture, at  Aachen  was  illustrated  in  Fig.  238).  Manu- 
script illumination  reached  a  high  pitch  of  development 
in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  and  stained  glass 
in  the  thirteenth;  the  former  following  purely  Byzan- 
tine models,  the  latter  retaining  its  Romanesque  charac- 
ter in  the  face  of  the  growing  Gothic  influence.  In  all 

275 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

these  arts  Germany  was  influenced  both  from  the  West 
and  the  East,  France,  Italy  and  Byzantium  contributing 
to  the  final  result.  Examples  of  some  of  these  various 
phases  of  German  art  are  illustrated  in  Plate  XVI. 

Spanish  Romanesque  Ornament. 

The  Spanish  peninsula  was  the  field  of  successive  in- 
vasions, conquests  and  internal  struggles  through  the 


FIG.  287.     TARRAGONA. 


Fio.  288.    TAEBAGONA  (?). 


entire  Middle  Ages,  and  there  was  little  chance  for  the 
development  of  any  independent  national  style.  The 
few  great  churches  erected  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth 
centuries  show  a  dominant  French  influence  (Zamorra, 
Avila,  Tarragona,  Salamanca,  Barcelona,  Compo- 
stella) ;  and  while  the  composition  is  vigorous  and  effec- 
tive and  the  ornament  well  disposed,  it  presents  no  strik- 
ing novelty  of  detail  (Figs.  287  and  288  illustrate  two 

276 


ROMANESQUE  ORNAMENT 

capitals  which  are  thoroughly  German  in  style) .  A  re- 
markable characteristic  of  this  style  is  its  absolute  free- 
dom from  Moorish  details  or  influence,  although  the 
eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  witnessed  the  culmination 


FIG.  289.  NORWEGIAK  CARVING: 
LEFT  SIDE,  FROM  STEDYE  CHURCH; 
RIGHT  SIDE,  UNIDENTIFIED. 


FIG.  290.    CHOIR  SEAT, 
NORWEGIAN. 


of  that  brilliant  art.     This  exemption  was  doubtless  due 
to  the  hostility  between  the  Christians  and  Moslems. 

Scandinavian  Ornament. 

The  decorative  art  of  the  north  of  Europe,  in  the 
Scandinavian  peninsula  especially,  took  on  a  special 
character,  the  precise  origin  and  relations  of  which  to 
Byzantine  art  on  the  one  hand  and  to  Celtic  art  on  the 
other,  are  still  subjects  of  controversy.  As  in  Celtic 
ornament,  elaborate  and  complicated  interlace  is  the 
dominant  characteristic;  and  as  in  the  Celtic  manu- 

277 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 


Fio.  291.    DETAILS  OF  CANDELABRUM, 


scripts,  the  interlace 
is  based  largely  on 
the  convolutions  of  a 
dragon  or  serpent, 
Nithhoggr,  with  the 
branches  of  the  great 
earth-covering  tree 
Yggdrasil.  The  most 
characteristic  exam- 
ples of  this  art  are  in 
the  wood-carvings  of 
doors  and  doorways 
of  ancient  churches, 
some  dating  from  the 
eleventh  or  even  the 
tenth  century  (Fig. 
289).  As  these  are 
of  later  date  than 
many  masterpieces  of 
Irish  manuscript  or- 
nament, some  of  which 
belong  to  the  eighth 
and  possibly  to  the 
seventh  century,  it 
seems  likely  that  this 
Scandinavian  art  is, 
in  part  at  least,  rooted 
in  Irish  art,  though 


MILAN  CATHEDRAL. 

this  doubtless  derived  its  first  inspiration  from  Constan- 
tinople and  Byzantine  church  fittings,  ivories  and  Gos- 
pels. Fig.  290  shows  a  Norwegian  chair  (or  rather  stall 

278 


ROMANESQUE  ORNAMENT 

from  a  choir)  of  perhaps  the  twelfth  century,  in  which 
the  character  of  the  earlier  art  still  appears. 

Romanesque  Metal  Work. 

It  is  difficult  to  assign  precise  national  limits  to  some 
of  the  phases  of  metal  work  of  the  Romanesque  period, 


FIG.  292.    DETAIL,  CHAXDELIER  AT  HILDESHEIM. 

especially  in  the  line  of  ecclesiastical  gold  and  silver  and 
silver-gilt  copper.  Some  of  this  work  found  in  Western 
churches  was  undoubtedly  from  the  Constantinople 
workshops — e.g.,  the  famous  Pala  d'Oro  or  jeweled 
golden  altarpiece  of  St.  Mark's,  Venice.  The  Byzan- 
tines taught  the  art  to  the  artisans  of  Italy,  France  and 
Germany,  and  Figs.  291-293  illustrate  some  of  the 
most  famous  examples  of  this  work.  Fig.  291  shows 
two  details  of  the  magnificent  bronze  candlestick  in 
Milan  Cathedral.  A  very  similar  candlestick,  at  least 
as  to  its  base,  is  among  the  treasures  of  Reims  Cathedral. 
Fig.  292  is  from  a  bronze  candlestick  at  Hildesheim. 
The  fine  chalice  in  Fig.  293  is  a  part  of  the  treasure  of 
a  church  at  Bergen  (Norway) ,  and  illustrates  the  use  of 

279 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

filigree  with  jewels,  which  was  a  characteristic  Byzan- 
tine form  of  the  goldsmith's  art.  A  very  similar  chalice 
is,  or  was,  in  the  treasury  of  Reims  Cathedral. 


FIG.  293.    GOLD  CUP,  BERGEX. 


The  architectural  styles,  thus  grouped  under  the  gen- 
eral name  of  Romanesque,  gradually  passed  over  into 
what  are  called  the  Gothic  styles.  The  transition  was 
not  sudden,  but  the  change  though  gradual,  was  a  real 
one :  not  alone  a  change  of  details  or  of  structural  prin- 
ciples, but  of  spirit  and  character.  The  Gothic  styles 

280 


ROMANESQUE  ORNAMENT 

expressed  the  new  order  which  came  in  with  the  final 
establishment  of  settled  institutions,  religious,  political 
and  social,  throughout  all  Western  Christendom. 

Books  Recommended: 

As  before,  DEHIO  and  BEZOLD,  HUBSCH.  Also,  BOND:  In- 
troduction to  English  Church  Architecture  (London,  1913); 
Cathedrals  of  England  and  Wales  (London,  1912)- — DAHL- 
ERUP,  HOLM  AND  STORK  :  Tegnmger  of  aeldre  Nordisk  Architek- 
tur  (Stockholm). — FORSTER:  Denkmdler  deutscher  Baukunst 
(Leipzig,  1855-69). — J.  T.  GILBERT:  Facsimiles  of  National 
Manuscripts  of  Ireland  (Dublin,  1871). — A.  HARTEL:  Archi- 
tectural Details  and  Ornaments  of  Church  Buildings,  etc.  (New 
York,  1904). — HASAK:  Die  romanische  und  die  gotische  Bau- 
kunst (Stuttgart,  1899). — T.  KUTSCHMANN:  Romanesque 
Architecture  and  Ornament  in  Germany  (Text  in  German; 
New  York,  1906). — C.  MOLLINGER:  Die  deutsch-romanische 
Architektur  (Leipzig,  1891). — H.  OTTE:  Geschichte  der 
romanischen  Baukunst  in  Deutschland  (Leipzig,  1874). — T. 
RICKMAN:  An  Attempt  to  Discriminate  the  Styles,  etc.  (Lon- 
don, 1817). — E.  SHARPE:  Churches  of  the  Nene  Valley;  Orna- 
ments of  the  Transitional  Period;  The  Seven  Periods  of  Eng- 
lish Architecture  (London,  various  dates). — E.  SULLIVAN: 
The  Book  of  Kells  (New  York,  1914).— W.  R.  TYMMS:  The 
History,  Theory  and  Practice  of  Illuminating  (London,  1861). 

For  Spanish  Romanesque,  consult  the  fine  work  of  LAMPEREZ 
Y  ROMEA,  Historia  de  la  arquitectura  cristiana  espanola,  etc., 
also  the  incomplete  series  entitled  Monumentos  Arquitectonicos 
de  Espana,  to  be  found  in  a  few  of  the  larger  libraries. 


281 


CHAPTER  XVI 

GOTHIC  ORNAMENT:  STRUCTURAL 

Gothic  architecture  was  the  result  of  the  development 
which  took  place  in  the  effort  to  solve  the  problem  of 
constructing  a  vaulted  cruciform  church  of  stone,  with 
a  clearstory  to  light  the  central  aisle  or  nave.  All  the 
special  forms  and  details  of  this  architecture  are  more 
or  less  directly  incidental  to  this  development:  vault- 
ribbing,  buttresses  and  pinnacles,  clustered  shafts, 
pointed  arches,  moldings  and  tracery,  were  all  evolved 
in  this  process  of  working  out  the  above  problem.  The 
greater  part  of  the  ornament  of  the  medieval  churches, 
chapels  and  even  secular  buildings,  consisted  of  the 
adornment  of  these  structural  features.  Whatever  dec- 
oration was  not  structural,  either  in  function  or  origin, 
was  symbolic  or  pictorial.  The  sculpture  and  the  stained 
glass  of  the  great  cathedrals  constituted  an  illustrated 
Bible  which  even  the  most  illiterate  could  in  a  measure 
understand. 

This  style-development  took  place  first  of  all  in 
France.  Other  countries  borrowed  from  France  both 
the  general  composition  and  the  details  of  their  Gothic 
architecture.  England  alone  among  them  retained  a 
large  measure  of  independence,  developing  her  own 
Gothic  style  freely  along  national  lines  from  germs 

282 


GOTHIC  ORNAMENT:  STRUCTURAL 

brought  over  from  France,  grafting  upon  the  foreign 
plant  their  own  original  additions.  Germany  copied 
French  models  much  more  closely  in  some  cases,  while 
manifesting  in  others  an  originality  verging  on  caprice. 
Spain  and  Portugal  borrowed  from  all  three,  though 
mostly  from  France;  Belgium  was  hardly  more  than  a 
province  of  France  in  her  architecture ;  while  the  Italians 
developed  no  truly  Gothic  style,  but  grafted  Gothic 
decorative  details,  much  altered,  on  structures  in  which 
the  Gothic  principles,  both  of  construction  and  compo- 
sition, were  wholly  ignored. 

Periods. 

It  is  convenient  to  divide  the  history  of  the  style  in 
all  the  above  countries  except  Italy  into  three  periods — 
those  of  development,  culmination  and  decline,  or  Early, 


FIG.    294.    GOTHIC    CAPITALS:    a,    EARLY    FRENCH,    FROM    THE    SAINTE 

CHAPELLE;  6,  14rH  CENTURY  CAP  FROM  TRANSEPT  OF  NOTRE  DAME; 

c,  FLAMBOYANT,  FROM  NORTH  SPIRE  OF  CHARTRES. 

Developed,  and  Florid.  These  correspond  to  the  so- 
called  Early  French,  Rayonnant  and  Flamboyant 
phases  of  Gothic  architecture  in  France,  and  the  Lancet, 
Decorated  and  Perpendicular  in  England;  these  names 
being  derived  from  the  form  and  tracery  of  the  windows. 

283 


In  the  English  styles  these  phases  belong  roughly  to  the 
thirteenth,  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  respect- 
ively :  in  France  they  appear  from  twenty  to  fifty  years 
earlier :  in  Germany  somewhat  later.  The  ornament  of 
the  Early  Period  (in  France  1160  to  1240  or  1250)  is 
the  simplest  and  most  vigorous,  the  imitation  of  natural 
forms  least  literal.  In  the  Developed  Period  design 
and  execution  are  finer,  ornament  more  profuse  and 
more  naturalistic,  and  window  tracery  ( and  in  England 
vault-ribbing  also)  became  more  important  elements  in 
the  decorative  scheme.  In  the  Florid  Period  the  styles 
diverge  considerably  in  the  different  countries,  but  in  all, 
the  ornament  is  more  complex  and  often  overloaded,  and 
also  often  more  thin,  wiry  and  dry,  technical  cleverness 

and  minute  detail  taking  the 
place  of  restraint  and  vigor 
of  artistic  design.  The  orna- 
ment oscillates  between  the 
extremes  of  realism  and  con- 
ventionalism. This  sequence 
is  illustrated  in  the  three 
capitals  of  Fig.  294. 

Structural  Ornament. 

Every  important  struc- 
tural feature  was  either  made 
ornamental  in  itself,  like  the 
clustered  shafts,  capitals,  tri- 
forium-arcades,  window-tra- 
ceries, roof-balustrades  and 
water-spouts ;  or  adorned 
with  carved  adjuncts  and  de- 

284 


FIG.     295.     DECORATIVE     GABLE 
OVER  A  WINDOW,  COLOGNE. 


GOTHIC  ORNAMENT:  STRUCTURAL 


V      V 


tails,  like  the  crockets,  finials, 
gablets  and  tabernacles  of  pin- 
nacles and  buttresses,  or  the  foli- 
age and  flowers  on  enriched  mold- 
ings ( See  Plate  XVII ) .  In  the 
Developed  and  Florid  Periods, 
by  the  operation  of  a  never-fail- 
ing law  of  decorative  evolution, 
certain  forms  and  features  orig- 
inally structural  came  to  be  used 
as  pure  ornament.  Thus  gables, 
originally  used  only  at  the  ends 
of  gabled  roofs,  came  to  be  used 
as  purely  decorative  features, 
adorned  with  surface  or  open- 
work tracery,  over  doors  and  win- 
dows where  no  such  roofs  existed 
(Fig.  295)  ;  in  England  the  vault- 
ribs,  serving  in  earlier  buildings 
as  a  framework  upon  which  to 
build  the  fillings,  became  finally 
a  mere  patterning  in  relief  on 
the  vault-surface ;  in  Germany  the  spire,  at  first  a  steep 
roof  over  a  bell  tower,  became  a  gigantic  ornament  of 
open  tracery  and  not  a  roof  at  all.1 

Piers,  Shafts  and  Columns. 

Except  in  some  of  the  earlier  French  and  later  Bel- 
gian and  Dutch  churches,  all  the  piers  were  clustered, 

i  See  pages  134,  135,  and  137  note  for  other  examples  of  this  law  of  devel- 
opment, and  comments  upon  it. 

285 


FIG.    296.       CLUSTERED 
GOTHIC    PIER. 


slender  shafts  being  grouped  around  a  central  core, 
sometimes  joined  to  it,  sometimes  quite  separate. 
These  shafts  were  usually  circular,  but  sometimes  pear- 
shaped,  springing  from  bases  at  a  common  level,  except 
in  the  later  examples  and  carrying  elaborate  foliated 
capitals  (Fig.  296).  Sometimes,  in  England  espe- 


PARIS 


a.  6* 

FIG.  297.    ROMANESQUE  AND  GOTHIC  CAPITALS;  a,  FROM  BAYEUX  CATHEDRAL, 
6,  FROM  ST.  MARTIN  DBS  CHAMPS,  PARIS. 

cially,  the  shafts  are  belted  at  intervals  with  molded 
bands.  Vaulting  shafts  are  often  sprung  from  carved 
corbels  high  up,  instead  of  bases  on  the  ground,  or  set 
on  the  caps  of  the  main  piers.  Gothic  shafts  are  never 
carved,  but  are  sometimes  painted. 

Capitals  display  a  a  great  variety  of  designs,  usually 
employing  foliage  as  their  chief  adornment.  The  earlier 
French  capitals  generally  recall  the  Corinthian  type  by 
their  bell-shaped  core,  square  abacus  with  the  corners 
cut  off,  and  volute-like  corner  crockets,  but  the  abacus  is 
always  massive  in  proportion  to  the  cap  and  shaft,  and 
the  development  of  the  type  from  the  Romanesque  is 

286 


GOTHIC  ORNAMENT:  STRUCTURAL 

evident  (Fig.  297).  Later  capitals  have  the  foliage 
more  complex  and  more  naturalistic  in  detail  ( Fig.  294 
b)  ;  the  abacus  is  octagonal  or  round;  in  England  the 
plain  molded  bell-capital  without  foliage  occurs  fre- 
quently, and  the  Corinthian  type  is  lost  in  the  convex 
wreaths  or  bunches  of  foliage  in  the  foliated  caps.  In 
the  Florid  Period  capitals  are  often  omitted,  and  when 


FIG.  298.    GOTHIC  BASES:  EARLY  TYPE,  FROM 
HALBERSTADT;  LATE  TYPE,  FROM  ROUEN. 

used  are  often  poor  in  design ;  they  vary  between  extreme 
naturalism  and  capricious  convention  (Figure  294c). 

Bases  show  a  very  interesting  progressive  develop- 
ment. The  simple  Attic  type  of  the  Romanesque  styles 
survives  for  a  while  but  first  loses  its  corner  spurs,  then 
changes  gradually,  the  plinth  taking  on  a  constantly  in- 
creasing importance  until  it  becomes  a  high  pedestal, 
with  the  moldings  above  it  much  reduced  and  simplified. 
The  lower  torus  also  becomes  higher  and  larger,  assum- 
ing the  later  phases  an  ogee  or  pear-like  profile. 
The  corners  of  the  plinth  were  cut  off  in  many  Roman- 
esque bases;  in  the  Gothic  the  plinth  (i.e.,  each  member 
of  a  complex  base)  is  almost  always  frankly  an  octagon 

287 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

or  semi-octagon  in  plan  (Fig.  298) .  In  the  later  period 
of  the  style  it  is  often  in  two  stages,  constituting  a 
pedestal  rather  than  a  simple  base. 

Moldings. 

The  simple  roll  molding  of  the  Romanesque  styles  is 
replaced  by  increasingly  complex  profiles,  in  which  pear- 
shaped  sections  frequently  alternate  with  deep  hollows, 
producing  effective  contrasts  of  multiplied  narrow  lines 
of  light  and  shadow.  In  the  first  two  periods  the  pro- 


Char 


FIG.  299.     FRENCH  PIER-ARCH  MOLDINGS  OF  THREE  PERIODS. 

files  are  sharp  and  vigorous,  and  in  the  pier-arches  the 
grouping  of  rounds  and  hollows  conforms  more  or  less 
closely  to  the  stepped  profile  of  the  arch-construction. 
In  the  Florid  Period  the  steppings  of  the  arch-section 
generally  disappear  in  a  generally  splayed  effect.  The 
profiles  in  this  period  are  less  vigorous  than  in  the  pre- 
ceding, the  hollows  being  broad  and  shallow,  the  convex 
moldings  smaller,  and  fine  fillets  are  multiplied,  giving 
at  times  a  thin  and  wiry  appearance  to  the  grouped  pro- 
files (Fig.  299). 

Enriched  moldings  are  more  frequent  in  English  than 
in  French  work,  though  they  occur  in  all  the  periods  in 
France  (especially  in  late  work),  England,  Germany 

288 


FIG.     300.     CORNICE-MOLDING, 
NOTHE  DAME,  PARIS. 


GOTHIC  ORNAMENT:  STRUCTURAL 

and  Spain.  Convex  moldings  are  rarely  enriched,  but 
the  hollows  between  them  are  adorned  with  leaves, 
crockets,  ball-flowers,  and 
in  early  English  work  with 
pyramid-flowers  or  "dog- 
tooth" ornaments.  In  place 
of  a  cornice  or  corbel-table, 
the  wall  (especially  in 
France)  was  often  crowned 
with  a  high,  deep  cavetto 
filled  with  standing  leaves  (Fig.  300).  In  the  Florid 
Period,  the  French  sometimes  filled  the  broad  hollows 
between  the  finer  members  of  a  molding-group  with  ex- 
quisitely carved  naturalistic  vines.  This  treatment  oc- 
curs in  English  examples  (e.g.  the  portals  of  Southwell 
Chapter  House)  in  the  Decorated  Period.  In  the  fol- 
lowing (Perpendicular)  Period  in  England  the  hollows 

wrere  more  often  enriched  with 
widely  spaced  square  rosettes. 
In  both  France  and  Ger- 
many moldings  of  different 
profiles  were  made  to  cross  and 
intersect  in  work  of  the  latest 
phase  of  the  Gothic,  the  intri- 
cate cutting  of  their  intersec- 
tions giving  occasion  for  that 
display  of  technical  cleverness 
which  characterizes  that  period. 
Vaulting. 

Gothic  vaulting  is  based  upon  the  principle  of  a 
framework  of  ribs  supporting  the  filings  of  masonry  of 

289 


FIG.  301.     CARVED  VAULT 
Boss:  FRENCH. 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

small  stones.  The  rib  framework  is  simple  in  the  early- 
work  of  all  countries,  the  only  ornament  being  the  mold- 
ings of  the  ribs  and  sometimes  a  carved  keystone  or  boss 
at  their  intersections  (Figure  301).  In  France  this 
simplicity  persists  nearly  to  the  end  (Fig.  302).  In 


FIG.  302.    VAULTING,  APSIDAL  CHAPEL,  BEAUVAM. 

England  the  ribs  were  multiplied  by  the  addition  of  tier- 
cerons  (Figure  303)  and  of  subordinate  connecting  ribs 
or  liernes,  and  combined  into  highly  ornamental  pat- 
terns ("star"  and  "net"  vaults),  with  carved  bosses  at 
each  intersection.  This  patterning  developed  finally 
into  "fan  vaulting,"  in  which  the  ribs  were  purely  decora- 
tive moldings  cut  in  the  stones  of  the  inverted  semi- 
conoids  of  the  vaulting  (Figure  304,  b;  a  sump- 
tuously ornate  form  of  stone  ceiling,  but  without  that 

290 


EXETER  CATHEDRAL 


LINCOLN  CATHEDRAL;  half  of  Tower  Vault 


L 

FIG.  304A. — INTERIOR, 


WINCHESTER  CATHEDRAL:  LIERNE  VAULTING 


FIG.  304B. — FAN  VAULT,  HENRY  VII's  CHAPEL,  WESTMINSTER 


GOTHIC  ORNAMENT:  STRUCTURAL 


clear  expression  of  structure  which  marked  the  earlier 
vaulting. 

In  Germany  and  Spain  the  vault-ribs  were,  as  early 
as  the  latter  part  of  the  Developed  Period,  built  to  fit 
predetermined  conventional  patterns,  in  which  the  lines 
were  not  always,  as  they  always  were  in  England,  true 
plane  curves.  The  builders  in  these  two  countries  de- 
lighted in  tours-de-force,  displays  of  cleverness  in  creat- 
ing and  solving  difficult  problems  of  vault-rib  construc- 
tion; but  the  results  are  neither  so  rich  nor  so  pleasing 
as  in  England. 

Window  Tracery. 

This  was  one  of  the  most  decorative  and  characteris- 
tic features  of  Gothic  architecture.  Its  development 
may  be  followed  from  the  Romanesque  coupling  of  win- 
dows under  a  discharging  arch  through  successive  stages 

in  which  the  separating 
pier  became  a  column  or 
a  slender  chamfered  or 
molded  pier  of  cut  stone, 
while  the  spandrel  above 
was  perforated  with  a  cir- 
cle; then  treated  like  a 
thick  plate  of  stone  with 
decoratively  cusped  or 
foiled  openings  cut 

ETTOX 


Fio.   305   a. 


PLATE   TRACERY, 
CHVRCH. 


through  it  (plate  tracery 
Fig.  305  a).  Then  the 
window  was  further  divided  into  three,  four,  or  more 
lights  by  slender  molded  or  shafted  mullions,  and 

293 


the  space  between  their  pointed-arched  heads  and  the 
main  window-arch  filled  with  circles  or  geometric  pat- 
terns of  stone  work,  the  interest  of  the  design  being  now 
transferred  from  the  shapes  of  the  openings  to  the  shapes 
of  the  stone  work  (bar  tracery,  Fig.  305  b).  Towards 
the  end  of  the  middle  Period  the  circular  arcs  and  circles 
of  this  type  of  tracery  (which  was  carried  to  the  highest 
perfection  in  the  great  East  and  West  windows  of  Eng- 


FIG.   305    6.     BAR   TRACERY,   MEOPHAM    CHURCH;    c,   PERPENDICULAR 
TRACERY,  NORTHFLEET. 

land  and  the  great  wheel- windows  of  France)  reverse 
curves  were  introduced,  giving  a  swaying  movement  to 
the  lines.  In  France  this  is  continued  through  the  next 
period,  giving  it  the  name  of  Flamboyant  from  the 
flame-like  forms  of  the  very  intricate  tracery  patterns 
used  both  in  arched  and  circular  windows.  In  England 
on  the  contrary  there  supervened,  from  about  1375,  a 
rapid  change,  leading  to  the  Perpendicular  style  of 
tracery ;  huge  windows  being  filled  with  a  very  mechan- 
ical, though  structurally  excellent,  system  of  vertical 
bars,  sometimes  crossed  by  transoms  on  small  flattened 

294, 


GOTHIC  ORNAMENT:  STRUCTURAL 

arches  (Fig.  305  c).  In  Germany  there  was  less  uni- 
formity, but  a  general  resemblance  to  the  French  flam- 
boyant forms.  These  various  developments  are  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  305  and  Plate  XXI. 

Noticeable  in  all  developed  Gothic  tracery  is  the  intro- 
duction of  cusps,  separating  or  enclosing  foils,  also  the 
branching  of  the  moldings,  so  arranged  that  the  main 
mullions  and  circles  have  a  section  composed  of  the  ag- 
gregate of  all  the  subordinate  arch — or  mullion — mold- 


Fio.  306.     VARIETIES  OF  CUSPS. 

ings  which  came  together  in  them.  The  several  com- 
ponent groups  of  moldings  are  called  orders.  Cusps 
may  consist  of  only  the  inmost  molding  widened  into  a 
point,  or  of  a  molding  or  complete  order  branching  off 
so  as  to  form  a  small  triangular  opening  (Fig.  306). 
Sometimes  one  of  the  outer  moldings  of  the  arch  of  a 
door  or  window  was  pointed  with  cusps  terminating  in 
small  finials  (Plate  XVII,  2,  shows  this  treatment  ap- 
plied to  a  flying  buttress-arch  in  Germany) . 

Wall  and  Gable  Tracery. 

During  the  course  of  the  Developed  Period  the  deco- 
rative richness  of  the  window-tracery  led  to  the  repeti- 
tion of  like  forms  on  certain  wall-surfaces,  upon  which 
they  formed  ornamental  panels  framed  in  the  lines  of  the 

295 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 


tracery  in  relief;  a  prac- 
tice especially  common  in 
English  Perpendicular 
and  German  Florid 
Gothic  work,  but  found 
in  all  countries  (see  Plate 
XVII).  In  France  it 
also  became  an  increas- 
ingly frequent  practice  to 
erect  over  doorways  and 
windows  false  gables — i.e. 
gables  having  no  roof  behind  them  but  employed  as  or- 
naments— filled  with  openwork  tracery  similar  in  char- 
acter to  that  in  the  arched  heads  of  the  windows.  Such 
gables  were  especially  elegant  in  design  in  the  Flam- 
boyant churches  of  France  (Figure  359). 

Balustrades. 

These  were  at  first  composed  of  small  columns  carry- 
ing round  or  pointed  arches  under  the  capstone  or  rail. 
Later  the  geometric  forms  of  open  tracery  were  applied, 


FIG.  307.    RAYONNANT  GOTHIC 
BALUSTRADE. 


FIG.  308.     FLAMBOYANT  FRENCH  BALUSTRADE;  CHATEAU  OF  JOSSELYN. 

296 


GOTHIC  ORNAMENT:  STRUCTURAL 

circles,  triangles  and  quadrilaterals  with  closed  or  open 
cusps  predominating.  Such  balustrades  are  used  at  the 
lower  edges  of  roofs  as  well  as  for  balconies,  tower-para- 
pets and  (rarely)  stairways  (Fig.  307,  Plate  XVII, 
14,  17) .  They  became  as  complex  as  other  features  in 
the  Florid  Period  (Fig.  308)  especially  in  Germany, 
where  they  often  formed  veritable  geometric  puzzles. 

Pinnacles,  Crockets  and  Finials. 

These  are  as  characteristic  of  the  Gothic  styles  as  is 
the  tracery.  The  buttresses — both  the  clearstory  wall- 
buttresses  and  the  outer  buttresses  external  to  the  side- 
aisles — were  commonly  terminated  by  a  tall  slender 
pyramid,  square  or  octagonal  in  plan,  rising  from  gab- 
lets  crowning  two  or  four  faces  of  the  buttress-top,  or 
from  minor  pinnacles  at  the  corners  (Plate  XVII,  1,  2, 
5).  These  pinnacles  were  adorned  along  the  hips  or 
edges  with  crockets  (Plate  XVII,  4) — outward-curl- 
ing leaf-like  or  flame-like  protuberances  richly  carved; 
— and  terminated  in  a  finial,  composed  usually  of  a  cen- 
tral stem  ending  in  a  ball  or  bud  and  branching  out  be- 
low this  into  four  or  more  crockets,  forming  a  remark- 
ably effective  terminal  flower  or  ornament  (Plate 
XVII,  6,  11). 

Crockets  (Fig.  295)  are  also  used  to  fret  the  salient 
edges  of  the  saddleback  copings  of  gables;  along  the 
hips  of  spires;  as  ornaments  to  the  outer  drip-moldings 
of  arches,  especially  in  the  Florid  Period;  and  (rarely) 
between  the  clustered  shafts  in  doorways  and  triforiums. 
Finials,  of  like  character  with  those  on  pinnacles,  are  the 
usual  termination  of  the  summits  of  gables,  and  of  ogee- 

297 


arches  in  late  Gothic  design  (Plate  XVIII,  5).  In 
early  work  the  crockets,  alike  those  of  the  finials  and  of 
gable-edges  or  spire-angles,  invariably  curl  outwards, 


a  b 

Fio.  309.    CROCKETS:  a,  EARLY   FRENCH;  6,  FLAMBOYANT. 

like  the  curled-up  volutes  of  fern  in  the  Spring  (Fig. 
309  a).  Later  they  took  on  more  elaborate  foliage- 
forms  with  complex,  wavy  outlines,  often  in  the  last 
period  of  the  style  losing  all  decision  and  character  in 
their  mass  and  detail  (Fig.  309  b) . 

Crestings  of 
stone,  of  cast-lead, 
of  terra-cotta  were 
employed  to  deco- 
rate the  ridges  of 
most  of  the  roofs,  on 
which  the  covering 

Fio.  310.    GOTHIC  CRESTING.  W3S  Usually  of  lead, 

copper  or  slate.  They  were  customarily  of  rather  sim- 
ple design,  ending  against  finials  of  metal  of  a  more 
elaborate  sort  (Fig.  310). 

Tabernacles. 

Not  strictly  structural  in  themselves,  these  were  em- 

298 


GOTHIC  ORNAMENT:  STRUCTURAL 

bellishments  of  structural  features  or  parts,  chiefly  of 
buttresses  and  of  the  jambs  of  deep  doorways.  They 
consist  of  a  niche  or  recessed  arch  to  hold  a  statue,  a 
corbel  to  support  it,  and  a  decorative  gable  or  canopy 
over  it,  the  canopy  often  running  up  into  an  elaborate 
spire.  The  decorative  function  of  the  whole  was  that 
of  breaking  up  the  bare  mass  of  a  vertical  strip  or  but- 
tress, or  of  a  wall,  or  of  the  doorway  jambs  with  a 
deep  shadow  and  the  brilliant  lights  of  the  statue,  and 
to  emphasize  the  vertical  movement  of  the  lines  of  the 
whole  composition.  The  canopy  was  made  increasingly 
elaborate  as  the  style  progressed,  and  in  late  examples 
was  composed  of  a  bewildering  intricacy  of  minute 
arches,  pinnacles  and  traceries,  the  whole  forming  an 
extraordinarily  rich  decoration  ( Figure  311). 

Corbels  were  of  frequent  occurrence  in  all  the  Gothic 
styles,  as  supports  for  statues,  for  vaulting-ribs,  for 
vaulting-shafts  and  for  columns ;  they  were  not  used,  as 
in  Romanesque  buildings,  to  support  a  cornice  or  corbel- 
table.  They  were  almost  invariably  carved  with  foliage, 
after  the  general  fashion  of  the  capitals,  though  some- 
times in  England  made  very  long  vertically  (e.g.  Lich- 
field  Nave).  Grotesque  heads  and  human  figures  ap- 
pear in  the  third  period;  they  are  rare  in  the  two  pre- 
ceding. A  late  French  corbel  and  crocket  are  shown  in 
Plate  XVIII,  13,  14. 

Gargoyles. 

Gothic  eaves-spouts  and  those  also  which  projected 
from  the  buttresses  were  invariably  carved  into  the  sem- 
blance of  long-necked,  vomiting  monsters,  called  gar- 

301 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

goyles  (Plate  XVII,  1).  Remarkable  skill  was  dis- 
played in  the  composition  and  anatomy  of  these  gro- 
tesque monsters.  They  are  among  the  most  striking 
examples  of  the  decorative-symbolic  treatment  of  purely 
utilitarian  members  (Figure  312) . 

Books  Recommended: 

As  before,  BOND,  DEHIO  AND  BEZOLD,  HARTEL,  VIOLLET- 
LE-Duc.  Also,  G.  L.  ADAMS:  Recueil  de  sculptures  gothiques 
(Paris,  1856). — BAUDOT:  La  Sculpture  francaise  au 
moyen-age  et  a  la  renaissance  (Paris,  1884). — ENLART: 
Manuel  d'archeologie  francaise  (Paris,  1902). — A.  L.  FROTH- 
INGHAM:  A  History  of  Architecture,  vol.  iii,  iv  (New  York, 
1915). — L.  GONSE:  L'Art  gothique  (Paris,  n.  d.). — HASAK: 
Die  romanische  und  die  gotische  Baukunst;  Der  Kirchen- 
bau;  Einzelheiten  des  Kirchenbaues  (Stuttgart,  1903). — A. 
HAUSER:  Stillehre  der  architektonischen  Formen  des  Mit- 
telalters  (Vienna,  1899). — K.  A.  HEIDELOFF'.  Ornamentik 
des  Mittelalters  (Nuremberg,  1838-55). — T.  G.  JACKSON: 
Gothic  Architecture  (London,  1915). — KLINGENBEHG:  Die 
ornamentale  Baukunst,  etc.  (Leipzig,  n.  d.). — C.  MARTIN: 
L'Art  gothique  en  France  (Paris,  1915). — C.  MOORE:  De- 
velopment and  Character  of  Gothic  Architecture  (New  York, 
1899). — NESFIELD:  Specimens  of  Mediaeval  Architecture  (Lon- 
don, 1862). — PARKER:  Introduction  to  Gothic  Architecture; 
Glossary  of  Terms  in  Gothic  Architecture;  Companion  to 
Glossary  (London,  1861-66).— A.  N.  W.  PTJGIN:  Glossary  of 
Ecclesiastical  Ornament  and  Costume  (London,  1868). — M. 
SCHMIDT:  Meisterwerke  der  dekorativen  Sculptur,  XI— XVI 
Jahrhundert  (Stuttgart,  1894-95.  This  is  a  German  edition 
of  the  work  listed  after  Chapter  XIV  under  the  title  Musee  de 
Sculpture  Comparee  du  Trocadero). — E.  SCHMUZER:  Gothische 
Ornamente  (Berlin,  1892). — G.  G.  UNGEWITTER  (tr.  by  Mon- 
icke)  :  Gothic  Model  Book  (London,  1862);  Sammlung  mit- 
telalterlicher  Ornamentik  (Leipzig,  1866). 


302 


CHAPTER  XVII 

GOTHIC   CARVING  AND  INDUSTRIAL  AND  ACCESSORY  ARTS 

Decorative  Carving  and  Sculpture:  Foliage. 

The  tradition  of  the  classic  acanthus  and  of  its  By- 
zantine modifications,  clearly  evident  in  all  Romanesque 
carved  foliage,  gradually  disappeared  in  Gothic  art.  In 
the  second  half  of  the  12th  century  the  French  carvers 
began  to  turn  for  inspiration  and  suggestion  to  the  com- 
mon vegetation  about  them,  and  developed  an  entirely 
new  category  of  foliage-forms.  This  change  was  due 
to  the  formation  of  guilds  of  free  or  non-monastic  ma- 
sons and  carvers  who  traveled  from  one  site  to  another 
to  ply  their  art,  untrammeled  by  the  monastic  traditions. 
They  were  the  counterpart  in  France  of  the  maestri 
comacini  of  Italy,  and  their  appearance  was  synchro- 
nous with  the  cathedral-building  movement  in  France, 
to  which  was  chiefly  due  the  impulse  toward  progress 
and  innovation  which  produced  the  Gothic  style.  As 
Viollet-le-Duc  has  pointed  out,1  these  artists  first  con- 
ventionalized the  simple  forms  of  the  earliest  sprout- 
ing Spring  herbage,  thick  and  crisp,  suggestive  of 
the  new  life  and  energy  of  Nature.  The  crocket,  de- 
scended no  doubt  from  the  Corinthian  corner-volute, 
was  carved  like  a  thick  flattened  shoot  bearing  a  globular 
bunch  of  uncurling  leaves  (Fig.  309).  Like  the  Cor- 

i  Article  "Sculpture"  in  "Dictionnaire  raisonn£"  (vol.  viii). 

303 


inthian  volute,  it  was  the  dominant  feature  of  capi- 
tals, as  in  Fig.  313;  see  also  Plate  XVIII,  1,  2,  3. 
The  other  leaves  were  massive  and  concave  in  modeling, 
and  all  the  foliage  was  made  to  grow  out  of  the  capital 


Fio.  313.    CAPITAL,  ST.   MARTI N-DES-CHAMPS, 
PARIS. 

or  other  member  which  bore  it  (Fig.  314).  As  the 
carver's  skill  increased,  the  stiffness  of  the  early  conven- 
tionalism disappeared,  and  a  beautiful  type  of  foliage 
was  evolved,  still  conventional  and  thoroughly  archi- 
tectural, but  with  grace  and  delicacy  of  detail,  and  varied 
by  a  closer  study  of  particular  plant-types  (Plate 
XVIII,  1).  This  study  led  to  an  increasing  natural- 
ism, to  a  more  and  more  realistic  copying  of  more  com- 

304 


INDUSTRIAL  AND  ACCESSORY  ARTS 

plex  and  more  mature  leaf- 
types  from  shrubs  and  trees, 
and  these  were  wreathed 
about  the  architecture  in- 
stead of  seeming  to  grow  out 
of  it  (Figs.  294  b  and  315) . 
By  the  end  of  the  14th  cen- 
tury this  tendency  was  being 
carried  to  extremes,  though 
with  remarkable  technical 
beauty  of  execution,  and 
thereafter  the  design  oscil- 
lates between  dry  conven- 
tionalism and  excessively 
minute  realism  (Figs.  294  c 
and  316) .  In  England  the 


FIG.  314.    CORKER  LEAF  FROM 
NOTRE  DAME,  PARIS. 


first  stage  of  develop- 
ment is  hardly  at  all 
represented.  The 

crocket  from  Wells 
Cathedral  (Fig.  317) 
is  an  exception  in  its 
resemblance  to  early 
French  models.  The 
early  English  capitals, 
crockets  and  corbels  of 
the  13th  century  show 
instead  an  extraordi- 
narily beautiful  han- 
dling of  minute  curl- 


Fro.  315.     FREXCH  RAYONNANT  CAPITAL. 
305 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 


FIG.  316.    CAPITALS,  CHAPTER   HOUSE  OF 
SOUTHWELL  CATHEDRAL. 

ing  trefoils,  often  highly  intricate  and  of  marvelous  ex- 
ecution (Fig.  318).  The  naturalistic  stage  is  seen  in 
innumerable  late  thirteenth  and  early  fourteenth  cen- 
tury churches,  in  which,  as  in  France,  the  flowers  and 
foliage  are  applied  to  the  architecture 
in  wreaths  and  hunches,  as  in  the  re- 
markable doorways  of  Southwell 
chapter-house  (dr.  1294;  Fig.  315). 
Foliage  is  scanty  in  Perpendicular 
work,  and  the  mechanical  form  of  the 
Tudor  rose  (Fig.  319)  is  the  most 
characteristic  floral  adornment.  In 
Germany  there  is  no  systematic  de- 
velopment of  foliage  design,  though 
there  is  much  very  beautiful  foliage;  it  is,  however,  in 
great  measure  copied  or  imitated  from  French  models. 

306 


Fio.      317.    CROCKET, 
WELLS    CATHEDRAL. 


INDUSTRIAL  AND  ACCESSORY  ARTS 


Figure  Sculpture. 

Figure  sculpture  applied  to  the  decoration  of  build- 
ings had  become  almost  a  lost  art  during  the  Dark  Ages, 


FIG.  318.     CAPITAL,  SALISBURY  CATHEDRAL. 

and  the  monastic  builders  of  the  eleventh  century  and  the 
first  half  of  the  twelfth  had  only  partially  and  sporadi- 
cally renewed  it.  We  have  already  seen,  however,  that 
in  occasional  instances  the  French  sculptors  had  dis- 
played great  skill  in  such  works  as  the  porches  of  St. 
Trophime  and  St.  Gilles  at  Aries 
(Plate  XIV),  and  the  west  portal 
of  Chartres  (Figure  260),  and  the 
widespread  use  of  grotesques  had 
developed  both  technical  and  artis- 
tic ability  in  the  use  of  the  chisel. 
In  the  cathedral  and  church  arch- 
itecture of  the  Gothic  period — 1160 
to  1500 — and  particularly  during 

307 


FIG.  31!).    TUDOU  FI.OWEH. 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries,  the  free  develop- 
ment of  art  which  succeeded  the  monastic  period  brought 
into  being  an  entirely  new  phase  of  decorative  figure- 
sculpture.  The  French  cathedrals  were  people's 
churches  quite  as  truly  as  bishops'  churches,  and  their 
builders  made  them  into  picture-Bibles  in  stone.  The 
portals  were  especially  rich  in  plastic  representations  of 
saints  and  angels,  kings,  prophets  and  martyrs,  and  the 

figures  were  modeled  with 
fine  regard  for  their  archi- 
tectural setting.  The  deep 
jambs  and  the  central  door- 
pier  were  adorned  with 
standing  figures,  often  of 
heroic  size,  sometimes  of 
great  beauty.  The  great 
tympana  over  the  doorways 
bore  reliefs  of  Christ  or  the 
Virgin  enthroned  amid 
scenes  of  life  of  the  Virgin, 
of  the  Last  Judgment  or  equally  solemn  subjects  (Fig- 
ure 321 ) .  The  cavernous  arches  were  studded  with  con- 
centric ranks  of  throned  and  adoring  angels.  An  arcade 
high  up  on  the  facade  was  filled  with  figures  of  crowned 
kings  of  France  or  of  Judea  (Fig.  320) ,  while  from  tab- 
ernacles on  buttresses  and  rood-screens  and  transept- 
fronts  angels  and  saints  looked  down  upon  the  throngs 
below.  The  earlier  sculpture  is  the  most  architectural 
in  character:  as  the  thirteenth  century  advanced  the 
treatment  was  more  realistic,  with  more  of  positive 
beauty  of  pose  and  feature  (Figure  322)  reaching  its 

308 


FIG.  320.     PART  OF  "GALLERY  OF 
KINGS,"  AMIEXS  CATHEDRAL. 


PIG.  321.— TYM- 
PANUM OF  PORTE 

»E      LA      VlERGE, 

NOTRE  DAME 


Fia.  321 


FIG.  322. — RELIEFS  FROM  PORTAL  OF  NOTRE  DAME 
FIG.  323. — TOMB  OF  ABBOT  STEPHEN  OF  AUBAGINE 


INDUSTRIAL  AND  ACCESSORY  ARTS 

culmination  in  the  "Beau  Dieu"  and  other  superb  fea- 
tures of  Reims  (Plate  XVIII,  10;  Figure  323)  though 
the  transept  porches  of  Chartres  are  perhaps,  taken  all 
together,  the  most  magnificent  examples  in  medieval  art 
of  the  perfect  balance  between  architecture  and  sculp- 
ture. The  most  notable  Gothic  sculptured  portals  in 
France  are  those  of  Chartres,  Reims  and  Amiens;  out- 
side of  France,  those  of  Strassburg,  Freiburg  and  Bale. 
The  later  sculptures  were  excessively  pictorial,  small  in 
scale  and  wonderful  in  their  minute  realism  and  delicate 
detail,  as  in  the  choir-screens  of  Amiens  and  Chartres. 

Outside  of  France  figure  sculpture  was  far  less  abun- 
dant and  less  skilful:  that  of  Lichfield  and  of  Wells  for 
instance,  though  decoratively  effective,  has  only  inferior 
merit  as  sculpture.  The  "Angel  Choir"  of  Lincoln 
(Figure  362)  is  charming  from  both  points  of  view,  but 
is  an  exceptional  work.  It  is  in  the  porches  and  rood- 
screens  of  the  fourteenth  century  that  the  best  English 
figure-sculpture  is  found.  The  figure-sculpture  of  Ger- 
many is  hardly  of  importance,  except  at  Strassburg  and 
Freiburg,  and  the  marvelously  minute  and  realistic  fig- 
ure-work of  the  fifteenth  and  early  sixteenth  centuries, 
especially  in  pulpits,  screens  and  the  like.  That  of  Spain 
and  of  the  Low  Countries  is  relatively  unimportant. 

Minor  Architecture. 

Choir  screens,  stalls  and  thrones,  pulpits,  tombs  (Fig- 
ure 323),  shrines,  altars  and  fonts  were  designed  with 
the  fundamental  features  of  monumental  architecture, 
but  with  greater  richness  and  greater  freedom  and  mi- 
nuteness of  detail  (Plate  XVIII,  16).  As  the  tend- 

311 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

ency  toward  minute  ornamentation  grew,  through  the 
fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  and  as  such  minute 
decoration  was  better  adapted  for  works  of  less  monu- 
mental scale  than  for  the  churches  themselves,  these 
minor  works  became  more  and  more  the  characteristic 
masterpieces  of  the  stone-carver's  art.  The  intricacy  of 
the  canopy-work  with  its  bewildering  network  of  arches, 
cusps  and  pinnacles  is  only  equaled  by  the  perfection  and 
delicacy  of  the  execution.  Verbal  descriptions  can  give 
little  idea  of  the  marvelous  detail  of  some  of  these  works, 
and  even  the  illustrations  fail  to  convey  a  complete  im- 
pression to  which  the  works  themselves  give  rise.  The 
most  beautiful  of  these  works  are  generally  the  French, 
though  the  Germans  at  times  press  them  closely  (see 
Figure  339),  and  some  even  of  the  French  works,  as 
the  rood-screens  at  Bourg-en-Bresse  and  Alby,  are  at- 
tributed to  German  artists  (Figure  325). 

Wood-Carving. 

Choir-stalls  offered  a  specially  rich  field  for  the  wood- 
carver's  chisel.  Each  seat  was  provided  with  a  high 
back  usually  terminating  in  a  projecting  canopy,  which 

in  turn  was  finished 
with  gablets,  pin- 
nacles and  a  high  and 
complex  spire.  The 
arms  separating  the 
seats  were  richly 
carved,  and  the 

MIIEBE.E,  BEVEHLEY  hinged       Seat,       when 

CATHEDRAL.  folded        back,        dis- 

312 


FIG.  324. — TYMPANUM,  CENTRAL  DOORS  OF  NOTRE  DAME,  PARIS: 
THE  LAST  JUDGMENT 


FIG.  825. — ROOD  SCREEN,  ALBY  CATHEDRAL 


INDUSTRIAL  AND  ACCESSORY  ARTS 


closed  a  grotesque  cor- 
bel, called  the  "mise- 
rere" (Fig.  326).  In 
the  later  Gothic  the 
choir  stalls  were  extra- 
ordinarily elaborate. 
Other  specimens  of 
wood  carving  are  found 
in  the  pew-ends  of  Eng- 
lish churches,  with 
elaborate  finials  (Fig. 
327) ;  in  the  bosses  and 
hammer  beams  of  Eng- 
lish wooden  ceilings 
(see  Fig.  374) ;  in 
chests  and  furniture  for 
the  sacristy,  and  in  the 
details  of  half-timbered 
houses  in  England, 
France  and  Germany; 
as  well  as  in  domestic 
furniture  (chests,  ta- 
bles and  chairs),  espe- 
cially of  the  15th  and 
16th  centuries.  The 
details  are  all  derived 
from  the  contemporary 
stone  architecture  and 
carving,  though  modi- 
fied  to  suit  the  material. 


FIG.  327. 


PEW  EXD,  WlNTHOBPE 

CHURCH. 


315 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

Metal  Work. 

Iron  was  costly  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and,  except  for 
clamps  and  drainages,  and  in  Italy  for  tie-rods  in  the 

vaulting,  was  rarely 
used  for  primary 
construction.  Its 
chief  uses  were  for 
nails  and  bolts,  for 
hinges  and  door-fit- 
tings, for  gates  and 
grilles,  and  for  locks, 
latches,  keys,  armor 
and  arms.  Cast-iron 
was  rarely  employed, 
although  a  late 
Gothic  example  is 
shown  in  Plate 
XVIII,  17.  The 
medieval  wrought 
iron,  especially  of 
France,  Italy,  Ger- 
many and  Flanders,  shows  marvelous  skill  in  forging, 
decorative  effects  being  produced  by  splitting,  twisting, 
welding  and  riveting  the  bars  by  scroll-work,  rosettes, 
and  repousse  or  hammered  work  in  sheet  metal  (Fig. 
328;  Figures  329,  330). 

Lead  was  used  for  crestings  and  for  covering  spires 
and  dormers.  Bronze,  brass,  copper  and  silver  were 
handled  with  skill  in  the  movable  furnishings  of  the 
church,  candelabra,  pyxes,  monstrances,  chalices,  cro- 
ziers,  pastoral  staves  and  the  like.  Enamel  and  jewels 

316 


Fio.  328.    CRESTING  OF  IRON   GRILLE,  ST. 
SEBXIN,  TOULOUSE. 


FIG.  329. — IRON  SCREEN,  BOUHGES  CATHEDRAL 


'Fio.  330. — IRON  FALSE  HINGE  (Penture);  NOTRE  DAME,  PARIS 


INDUSTRIAL  AND  ACCESSORY  ARTS 

were  employed  to  heighten  the  richness  of  these  objects. 
The  goldsmith's  and  silversmith's  art  derived  most  of  its 
origins  from  Byzantine  art,  but  departed  rapidly  from 
it  and  developed  a  style  wholly  Western  and  Gothic. 

Textile  Ornament. 

The  remains  of  medieval  embroideries,  laces  and  tap- 
estries are  not  abundant.  There  was  little  richness  of 
dress  or  textile  furnishings  except  in  ecclesiastical  dress 
and  among  the  few  who  were  rich  and  powerful  in 
Church  and  State,  and  to  a  remarkable  extent  the  ec- 
clesiastical robes  and  embroideries  have  disappeared, 
though  they  were  undoubtedly  often  of  great  beauty 
and  even  magnificence.  Those  preserved  to  this  day 
are  mostly  of  the  fifteenth  century,  except  a  respectable 
number  of  Spanish  and  Sicilian  embroideries  and  silk 
damasks  of  the  thirteenth  to  fifteenth  centuries  which 
show  a  strongly  Oriental  inspiration. 

Tiles. 

Fine  pottery  was  an  almost  unknown  art  in  western 
Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages  except  among  the  Moham- 
medans of  Spain  and  Sicily.  Ceramic  tiles  were,  how- 
ever, used  in  floors,  especially  about  the  altar  in  France, 


FIG.  331. 


FRENCH  TILE  PATTERNS. 
319 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

and  examples  of  their  simple  but  effective  patterning  are 
seen  in  Fig.  331. 

Manuscript  Decoration. 

This  art,  derived  originally  from  Byzantine,  elabo- 
rated in  Ireland,  England  and  France  in  the  Roman- 


Fio.  332.    LATE  GOTHIC  MANUSCRIPT  ORNAMENTS. 

esque  period,  reached  a  very  high  state  of  perfection  in 
the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  developing  into 
different  schools  of  design  in  France,  Flanders,  Eng- 
land, Germany,  Spain  and  Italy.  Three  different 
classes  of  design  are  to  be  distinguished :  pictorial  deco- 
ration (the  so-called  miniatures),  initials,  and  borders. 
The  first  belongs  to  the  art  of  painting,  though  it  al- 
ways displayed  a  highly  decorative  character;  the  other 
two  belong  to  the  domain  of  pure  ornament.  They 
drew  largely  upon  the  contemporary  art  of  stained  glass, 

320 


a 


FIG.  334. — a.  JESSE  WINDOW,  CHARTRES 
FIG.  335. — b.  UPPER  PART  OF  A  CANOPY  AViNDOw,  COLOGNE 
c.  CANOPY  WINDOW,  YORK 


INDUSTRIAL  AND  ACCESSORY  ARTS 

both  for  the  color  scheme  and  the  details,  but  with  much 
freer  handling  and  frequent  use  of  foliage  and  of  free 
abstract  design  in  flourishes,  scrolls  and  interlaces. 
Gold  was  used  with  fine  effect  though  sparingly.  The 
name  of  Jean  Fouquet  stands  conspicuous  in  the  bril- 
liant French  school  of  the  late  fifteenth  century.  The 
most  notable  production  of  the  Flemish  school  was  the 
Grimani  Breviary,  now  in  Venice;  but  every  consid- 
erable collection  of  manuscripts  possesses  beautiful  ex- 
amples of  the  various  schools  in  breviaries,  books  of 
hours,  psalm-books,  chant-books  and  secular  works- 
chronicles,  histories  and  editions  of  the  classics.  Fig. 


FIG.  333.    A  FRENCH  MEDALLION  WINDOW. 
32$ 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 


332  illustrates  a  few  details  of  this  brilliant  and  fascinat- 
ing phase  of  medieval  design ;  other  examples  are  shown 
in  Plate  XX. 

Stained  Glass. 

Of  all  the  arts  allied  to  Gothic  architecture,  that  of 

the  stained  glass  win- 
dows is  the  most  char- 
acteristic as  a  special 
product  of  the  style. 
From  timid  begin- 
nings in  the  Roman- 
esque buildings  l  it  de- 
veloped rapidly  as  the 
size  and  splendor  of 
the  traceried  windows 
increased.  The  depth 
and  brilliancy  of  color 
attained  by  the  glass- 
makers  of  the  thir- 
teenth century  pro- 
vided a  new  decorative 
resource  for  the 
church-builders  and 
window-designers ;  a 
richness  and  intensity 
of  blues,  reds,  yellows 
and  greens  rivaling 
the  splendor  of  mo- 
saic. The  mechani- 


Fio.     336.     GERMAN      GRISAILLE.      ABOVE, 

FROM  COLOGNE;   BELOW,  FROM 

ALTEXBURO. 


1  The  Germans  claim  an  active  production  of  mosaic  glass  as  early  as 
1000  A.D.  at  Tegernsee  (Meyer,  "Ornamentale  Formenlehre"). 

324 


INDUSTRIAL  AND  ACCESSORY  ARTS 

cal  imperfections  of  the  early  glass  made  it  only  the 
more  sparkling,  while  the  heavy  leading  employed 
gave  a  suitable  foil  to  the  glowing  colors  by  its  black 
lines  which  tended  to  harmonize  as  well  as  separate  oth- 
erwise crude  juxtapositions  of  color. 

The  early  windows  were  arranged  in  medallions,  each 
containing  a  picture  in  mosaic,  as  it  were,  made  up  of 
small  units  of  color 
separated  by  the 
lines  of  the  leading 
(Fig.  337).  The 
spandrels  between 
the  medallions  were 
filled  with  quarry- 
work  or  foliage  in 
grisaille  (lines  of  a 
semi-opaque  brown 
pigment  fused  onto 
the  glass  at  a  com- 
paratively low  tem- 
perature). A  border  of  leaves  or  other  conventional 
units  framed  the  whole.  A  few  such  windows  have 
come  down  from  the  12th  century  (the  earliest  stained 
glass  extant  is  at  St.  Denis,  said  to  be  of  1108) ,  and  they 
continued  to  be  used  through  the  greater  part  of  the  thir- 
teenth century.  "Jesse-tree"  windows  and  medallion 
windows  entirety  composed  of  foliage,  conventional  or- 
nament and  grisaille  were  also  common  through  this 
century  (Fig.  335).  The  invention  of  the  yellow  stain 
(stannic  oxide)  led  then  to  the  making  of  "canopy"  win- 
dows, with  large  figures  standing  under  elaborate  trac- 

325 


Fio.  337.    LEADING  OF  AX  EARLY  FRENCH 
WINDOW:    THE    MARRIAGE    AT    CANA. 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 


cried  canopies  of  yellow  glass  (Figures  335,  from  York 
Cathedral).  Ribbons  with  inscriptions  were  increas- 
ingly used,  the  coloring  was  less  pure  and  intense,  the 
composition  more  involved,  with  much  painted  detail. 
With  the  15th  century  there  was  a  further  decline  in  rich- 
ness of  color;  much  white  or  nearly  transparent  glass 

is  used,  and  the  treat- 
ment is  more  pictorial 
and  less  decorative. 
With  the  advent  of  the 
Renaissance  the  art  in 
western  Europe  passed 
into  eclipse,  except  for 
occasional  artists  in 
France,  in  Flanders  and 
in  Germany.  In  Italy, 
where  windows  had  us- 
ually been  of  moderate 
size  in  medieval  times, 
the  art  of  decorative 
stained  glass  had  not 
flourished;  but  with  the  Renaissance  it  received  a  sud- 
den impulse,  and  some  beautiful  works  were  produced, 
by  Ghiberti  among  the  first.  The  most  splendid  me- 
dieval glass  is  to  be  found  in  France,  Chartres  Ca- 
thedral and  the  Sainte  Chapelle  being  especially  rich; 
the  transepts  of  Notre  Dame,  Paris,  and  the  clearstory 
of  Tours  Cathedral  also  supplying  notable  examples. 
Unhappily,  the  superb  glass  which  was  once  the  glory 
of  Reims  Cathedral  has  been  completely  destroyed  by 
the  German  bombardment.  In  England  the  icono- 

326 


FIG.    338.    EARLY    FRENCH    FIGURE 
WINDOW:  CHAHTRES. 


INDUSTRIAL  AND  ACCESSORY  ARTS 

clasm  of  the  Puritans  and  the  havoc  of  Wyatt  in  the 
early  nineteenth  century  have  left  but  scanty  remains 
of  the  old  glass.  Canterbury  and  York  possess  fine 
glass  and  there  are  a  few  good  pieces  still  left  in  Salis- 
bury Cathedral.  Very  late  examples  are  to  be  seen  in 
King's  College  Chapel,  Cambridge,  and  in  St.  Jacques 
at  Liege.  The  best  German  glass  is  in  the  Cathedrals 
of  Cologne,  Altenburg  and  Strassburg  (Fig.  336). 
Figs.  337  and  338  illustrate  the  leading  of  the  early 
glass, — a  most  important  element  in  the  decorative  effect 
of  the  window. 

With  the  later  years  of  the  fifteenth  century  the 
Gothic  style  approached  its  extinction  by  the  rapidly- 
spreading  art  of  the  Renaissance.  But  while  it  had 
reached  the  final  limit  of  structural  development,  and 
architecture  was  sensibly  declining,  the  arts  of  ornament 
were  still  at  the  highest  point  of  richness  and  of  technical 
perfection  (Figures  339,  340) .  This  splendor  of  minute 
decoration,  of  complex  tracery,  realistic  pictorial  sculp- 
ture, sumptuous  embroidery  and  showy  furniture  was, 
however,  the  final  coruscation  of  an  expiring  flame. 
The  decorative  details  of  the  style  long  resisted  the  in- 
vasion of  the  Renaissance  style  from  Italy,  in  France, 
England,  Germany  and  Spain.  But  the  new  style  was 
more  than  a  fashion ;  it  was  but  one  symptom  of  a  funda- 
mental change  of  spirit  of  the  artistic  point  of  view,  of 
civilization  and  ideals,  and  by  the  middle  of  the  six- 
teenth century  Gothic  art  had  passed  away. 


329 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

Books  Recommended: 

As  before,  DEHIO  AND  BEZOLD,  ENLAET,  GONSE,  HASAK, 
MARTIN.  Also,  H.  ADAMS:  Mont  St.  Michel  and  Chartres 
(N.  Y.  and  Boston,  1913). — DECLOUX  AND  DOURY:  La  Sainte 
Chapel  du  palais  (Paris,  1865). — F.  H.  EGGERT:  Sammlung 
gothischer  Verzierungen  (Munich,  1865). — E.  HERDTL: 
Flachenverzierungen  des  Mittelalters  und  der  Renaissance 
(Hannover,  1875). — A  RACINET:  L'Ornement  polychrome 
(Paris,  1869-87). — J.  ROSENTHAL:  UArt  du  Hire  au  Mot/en- 
age  et  dans  les  temps  modernes  (Munich,  1901). — H.  SHAW: 
Alphabets,  Numerals  and  Devices  of  the  Middle  Ages  (London, 
1845). — V.  TEIRICH:  Eingelegte  M  armor-Ornamente  des  Mit- 
telalters und  der  Renaissance  (Vienna,  1875). — VIOLLET-LE- 
Duc:  Articles  "Peinture"  and  "Vitrail"  in  the  Dictionnaire 
raisonne,  etc.,  previously  cited  (Paris,  1868). — J.  B.  WARING: 
Examples  of  Weaving  and  Embroidery  (London,  1880). 


330 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

PARTICULAR   SCHOOLS  OF  GOTHIC   OENAMENT 

I.  FRENCH  AND  ENGLISH 

In  the  general  discussion  of  Gothic  ornament  in  the 
last  two  chapters,  while  the  chief  attention  was  given  to 
the  developments  in  France,  many  references  were  made 
to  the  diverging  practice  of  the  English,  German  and 
Spanish  schools.  This  chapter  and  the  following  will 
be  devoted  to  a  more  detailed  treatment  of  the  several 
national  styles  or  sub-styles  of  Gothic  decorative  art. 

French  Gothic  Ornament. 

The  Gothic  style  in  France  may  be  considered  as 
lasting  from  the  beginning  of  Notre  Dame  at  Paris  in 
1163,  to  the  accession  of  Francis  I  in  1515.  It  is  cus- 
tomary to  divide  this  period  into  three  divisions  or 
periods,  the  Early  French,  from  1163  to  1250  or  there- 
about; the  Rayonnant,  1250  to  1375,  and  the  Flam- 
boyant, 1375  to  1515.  These  are  somewhat  arbitrary 
divisions,  as  the  progress  from  one  stage  and  phase  of 
development  to  another,  whether  in  window-tracey,  carv- 
ing or  stained  glass,  was  continuous  and  gradual. 
Through  all  this  development  French  Gothic  ornament 
was  marked  by  certain  characteristics  which  distinguish 
it  from  the  English  and  other  national  styles. 

331 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 


Carving. 

The  carving  of  foliage  underwent  a  progressive  devel- 
opment which  has  already  been  described  (pp.  303-306) , 


FIG.  341.    CAHVED  BAKD,  FRONT  OF  SENS  CATHEDRAL. 

from  the  simple  and  strongly  conventional  early  type 
(Fig.  341) ,  to  the  highly  naturalistic  and  detailed  foliage 
of  the  Rayonnant  period,  and 
thence  through  the  decline  of  the 
Flamboyant.  But  in  all  these 
stages  it  was  marked  by  a  vigor  of 
design,  a  crispness  of  execution, 
and  a  strongly  architectural  char- 
acter hardly  equaled  elsewhere. 

Capitals  were  tall  and  bell- 
shaped  at  first,  with  high  square  or 
octagonal  abaci  (Figs.  297,  313, 
342;  Plate  XVIII,  1,  2,  3) ;  later 
the  foliage,  which  in  the  earlier 
stages  of  the  style  seemed  to  grow 
out  of  the  shaft  and  was  strongly 

332 


Fio.    342.    CAPITAL   FROM 
SAINTE   CHAPELLE. 


•  r  r^::,jjr'«»tvy;\'v 

4Mfe^§Sfe 

:N<=I^ 

-  :  ;**££ 
•  r& 

:^< 


SCHOOLS  OF  GOTHIC  ORNAMENT 


conventional,  was 
made  more  naturalis- 
tic and  applied  to  or 
wreathed  around  the 
bell  in  less  organic 
fashion,  as  in  the 
splendid  caps  of  the 
nave-piers  of  the  Ca- 
thedral of  Reims 
(Plate  XVIII,  7) .  In  the  Flamboyant  period  capitals 
are  often  dispensed  with  altogether  between  the  piers 
and  pier-arches. 

Moldings. 

Until  that  period  foliage  was  occasionally  employed 
in  the  hollows  of  moldings,  especially  in  cornices  formed 
by  rows  of  standing  leaves  or  crockets  occupying  the 


Fio.  343.     DETAIL  FROM  CORNICE,  NOTRE 
DAME,  PARIS. 


FIG.  344.    CORNICE  MOLDING,  FROM  NOHREY. 

high  hollow  or  cavetto  between  convex  moldings  above 
and  below   (Figs.  343-346).     In  the  series  shown  in 

335 


these  figures  we  may  trace  the  progress  of  the  treatment 
from  conventional  through  naturalistic  carving  to  the 
weaker  conventionalism  of  the  later  Gothic.  In  the 
Flamboyant  period  elaborate  vines  were  carved  in  highly 


FIG.  345.     OAK  LEAF  MOLDING,  SAINTE  CHAPELLE,  PARIS. 

naturalistic  fashion  in  the  hollow  moldings,  as  in  the  ex- 
ample from  the  porch  of  Troyes  Cathedral  in  Plate 
XVIII,  15.  A  more  conventional  rendering  of  foliage 
is  seen  in  the  example  from  St.  Urbain  at  Troyes  in  the 


Fia.  346.     LATE  GOTHIC  MOLDING,  CHOIR  ENCLOSURE,  NOTRE  DAME,  PARIS. 

same  Plate,  No.  18.     Foliage  was  throughout  all  these 
periods  employed  with  admirable  effect  in  crockets, 

336 


SCHOOLS  OF  GOTHIC  ORNAMENT 

finials,  vaulting-bosses  and  the 
like  (Fig.  347).  Surface- 
carving  is  seldom  employed. 
The  rinceau  survives  in  early 
work  in  occasional  pilaster-like 
vertical  bands  and  horizontal 
lintels  (Fig.  348),  but  passes 
out  of  use  very  early  in  the 
thirteenth  century. 


Figure  Sculpture. 


FIG.  348.     CARVED  VERTICAL  RINCEATT, 
NOTRE   DAME,  PARIS. 

337 


FIG.   347.     Boss   FROM   VAULT 
OF    SAINTTE    CHAPELLE. 

The  free  figure- 
sculpture  of  the  great 
portals  of  cathedrals 
has  already  been  al- 
luded to  (page  307). 
The  throned  angels  in 
the  portal  arches,  the 
standing  figures  of 
apostles,  martyrs  and 
saints  in  the  deep 
jambs  (Figure  352), 
the  reliefs  on  the  pedes- 
tal courses  of  the  jambs 
(Fig.  349)  constitute 
a  combination  of 
deeply  significant  and 
artistically  appropri- 
ate sculpture  never 
elsewhere  equaled,  be- 
fore or  since  (see 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

ante,  page  308  and  Figure  323;  also  Figs.  320,  349). 
Grotesques  often  mingle  effectively  with  carved 
foliage,  as  in  Figure  350  from  Chartres  Cathedral. 
Very  striking  and  nobly  decorative  also  are  the 
colossal  angels  standing  in  the  pinnacled  tabernacles 

surmounting  the  but- 
tresses of  Reims  Cathe- 
dral. 

The  culmination  of 
minute  realism,  alike  in 
statues  and  reliefs, 
came  in  the  fifteenth 
and  early  sixteenth 
centuries,  in  choir-en- 
closures like  those  in 
Amiens  Cathedral 

(Figure      351)       and 

FIG.  349.   RELIEFS  FROM  BASE  OF      Chartres,  and  in  choir- 
POBTAL,  NOTRE  DAME.  screens  and  tombs,  as 

in  the  famous  examples  in  the  Brou  church  at  Bourg- 
en-Bresse.  In  no  other  country  did  figure-sculpture 
play  so  important  a  part  in  the  decorative  system. 
Equally  appropriate  and  decorative  with  these  archi- 
tectural sculptures  was  the  minor  decorative  figure- 
work  in  wood  and  ivory,  as  evidenced,  for  example,  in 
the  beautiful  ivory  triptych  from  the  Municipal  Library 
of  Amiens,  of  which  Figure  353  illustrates  the  central 
panel. 

Tracery. 

In  the  Early  French  period  the  tracery  was  at  first 

338 


FIG.  352. — Two  FIGURES  FROM  FIG.  353. — IVORY  TRIPTYCH,  IN  AMIENS  LIBRARY 

PORTAL,  AMIENS  CATHEDRAL  FRENCH,  X\"TH  CENTURY 


'  35*'     HALF  OF  WEST  ROSE,  CHARTRES. 


SCHOOLS  OF  GOTHIC  ORNAMENT 

extremely  simple.     The  Cathedral  of  Chartres  shows  the 

finest  examples  of  plate  tracery  in  its  western  rose 

window  (Fig.  354)  and  the  tops  of  the  clearstory  win- 

dows of  the  nave.     In  the  windows  of  St.  Denis,  Notre 

Dame  at  Paris,  Reims 

and     the     nave     of 

Amiens  we  have  the 

simpler  types  of  bar- 

tracery      (1225-1240; 

Fig.     355).     In    the 

Sainte     Chapelle     at 

Paris       the      choir      Of 

Amiens  and  the  external  chapels  of  Notre  Dame  at 
Paris,  bar-tracery  takes  on  a  greater  geometrical 
elaboration;  very  possibly  under  the  influence  of  Eng- 
lish examples  (see  page  360)  ;  and  throughout  the 

Rayonnant  period,  both  in  the 
splendid  rose  windows  of  the 
transepts,  as  in  those  of  Notre 
Dame  and  of  Reims  (Plate 
XVIII,  9),  and  in  the  side  win- 
dows, especially  of  the  clear- 
stories, there  is  a  great  variety  of 
rich  geometrical  patterning. 
While  the  English  during  the 
thirteenth  and  early  fourteenth 
centuries  unquestionably  sur- 
passed the  French  in  the  rich- 
ness and  variety  of  their  bar- 
tracery,  the  French  rose  win- 
dows of  the  same  period  are  un- 

341 


355.     EARLY 
REIMS  CATHEDRAL. 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

equaled  elsewhere  in  their  kind ;  and  it  is  they  that  give 
the  name  Rayonnant  (=  radiating)  to  the  period,  on 
account  of  their  radiating  or  wheel-like  design.  The 
illustration  in  Plate  XVIII,  12,  from  the  fine  model  of 
a  portion  of  the  church  of  St.  Urbain,  Troyes  (about 
1260),  in  the  Trocadero  Museum,  Paris,  shows  the  more 
slender  and  open  type  of  the  French  geometric  bar- 
tracery  of  the  thirteenth  century  which  developed  out 
of  the  simpler  early  types. 

Cusping  is  an  important  element  in  these  designs 
(Plate  XVII,  10,  15;  Plate  XVIII,  5,  9,  12),  both  the 
closed  and  the  open  cusp  being  employed.  An  unusual 
treatment  is  the  cusped  fringe  on  the  intrados  of  the 
outer  arch  in  the  portals  of  Amiens  (about  1280) . 

As  the  style  developed,  tracery-design  became  more 
and  more  important  as  mere  ornament,  in  openwork 
gables  and  tracery  cut  in  relief  on  solid  walls  as  a  mere 
surface  decoration.  Plate  XVII,  10,  shows  a  detail 
from  the  transept  of  the  Cathedral  of  Meaux;  ib.  15,  a 
detail  from  the  south  transept  of  Notre  Dame,  Paris, 
showing  a  bit  of  the  great  rose  window  and  the  wall- 
tracery  on  the  spandrel.  Balustrades,  which  in  the 
first  period  were  hardly  more  than  rows  of  colonnettes 
or  narrow  arches  supporting  a  rail  (Plate  XVII,  14, 
17),  were  in  the  two  following  periods  composed  of 
openwork  tracery  of  great  beauty  (see  ante,  Figs.  307, 
308). 

Flamboyant  Tracery. 

By  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  the  increas- 
ing taste  for  minute  and  fanciful  decorative  detail  began 

342 


pq 

*w  »/ 


to  affect  the  design  of  window-tracery,  by  the  substitu- 
tion of  flowing  and  waving  lines  for  the  simpler  geo- 
metric combinations  of  circles,  pointed  arches  and  cusps 
which  had  hitherto  satisfied  all  requirements  for  over  a 
century.  The  "ogee"  arch  was  substituted  for  the  arch 
formed  by  simple  circular  arcs,  and  the  flame-like  forms 
which  result  from  dividing  a  circle  through  the  center 
by  a  wave-line,  became  almost  the  dominant  motive  in 
the  tracery-design.  The  resulting  style  of  design, 
though  less  logical  structurally  than  the  earlier  geo- 
metric types  of  tracery,  was  more  flexible  and  capable 
of  a  greater  variety  of  combinations.  It  dominated  the 
entire  architecture  of  France  from  1375  to  1515,  and 
covered  the  exteriors  of  churches  with  an  extraordinary 
wealth  of  traceries,  both  of  openwork  and  of  blind  or 
wall-tracery  (Figures  340,  356,  357;  Figs.  358,  359). 
It  was  especially  effective  in  the  rose  windows,  as  in 
the  front  of  St.  Ouen,  Rouen,  the  fronts  of  Rouen 
Cathedral,  the  Sainte  Chapelle,  Paris,  Tours,  Amiens, 
and  Reims  Cathedrals,  and  the  transepts  of  Beauvais. 
In  several  cases  these  Flamboyant  roses  were  inserted 
in  earlier  f^ades  (Amiens,  Sainte  Chapelle).  The 
front  of  Rouen  Cathedral,  long  unfinished,  but  com- 
pleted within  recent  years,  is  the  most  elaborate  and 
splendid  example  of  this  Flamboyant  design;  next  to 
it  stands  the  exquisite  little  church  of  St.  Maclou  at 
Rouen;  while  the  north  spire  of  Chartres  Cathedral, 
and  the  charming  little  church  at  Louviers  (Figure  359) , 
are  others  among  many  examples  of  the  marvelous  rich- 
ness and  delicacy  of  which  the  style  was  capable. 

The  origin  of  this  change  in  tracery  design  is  gen- 

345 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

erally  now  ascribed  to  English  influence.  A  considerable 
part  of  northern  France  was  in  English  hands  in  the  four- 
teenth century,  and  (as  will  be  later  shown)  the  English 
had  before  the  middle  of  that  century  developed  their 
"flowing"  or  "curvilinear"  tracery.  While  they  soon  ex- 
changed this  for  the  more  rigid  "Perpendicular"  tracery, 
the  French  developed  the  suggestion  of  the  wavy  line  to 
its  utmost  possible  results  of  decorative  splendor. 

Stained  Glass. 

The  development  of  the  art  of  stained  glass  was  so 
closely  associated  with  the  progress  of  Gothic  architec- 
ture that  Fergusson,  in  his  "History  of  Architecture," 
claims  it  as  the  one  exclusively  distinguishing  feature  of 
the  Gothic  style,  which  might  properly  be  called  "the 
stained  glass  style."  The  Romanesque  churches,  with 
their  thick  walls  and  small  windows,  offered  little  scope 
or  suggestion  for  pictured  windows.  The  Gothic  style, 
with  its  concentrated  supports  and  gradual  reduction  of 
wall  areas,  developed  a  progressive  increase  in  the  size 
and  loftiness  of  its  windows,  and  this  progress  stimu- 
lated the  art  of  pictured  and  decorative  glass  by  giving 
it  greater  opportunities.  Indeed,  the  larger  the  win- 
dow, the  more  necessary  became  colored  glass  to  reduce 
the  excessive  glare;  while  the  more  splendid  the  glass 
and  the  deeper  and  richer  its  tone,  the  greater  was  the 
tendency  to  enlarge  the  windows.  The  structural 
progress  of  the  French  Gothic  style  was  thus  closely 
associated  with  the  progress  of  window  decoration  by 
colored  glass.  While  the  French  led  in  this,  as  in  so 
many  other  branches  of  decorative  art,  and  while  more 

846 


FIG.  358.— RAYONNANT  TRACERY,  CARVED,  ON  A  CHURCH  DOOR 


FIG.  «59. — FLAMBOYANT  TBACERY,  CHURCH  OF  ST.  PIERUE,  LOUVIEBS 


SCHOOLS  OF  GOTHIC  ORNAMENT 

fine  glass  has  survived  in  France  than  in  any  other 
country  (see  ante,  page  326),  there  was  at  the  same 
time  less  fundamental  difference  in  style  between  the 
French  and  other  national  schools  than  one  might  per- 
haps expect.  Figure  design,  in  all  three  periods,  was 
more  nearly  universal  than  either  in  England  or  Ger- 
many, and  the  colors  were  generally — at  least  in  the 
first  period — deeper  and  richer.  In  purely  decorative 
effect  it  may  be  doubted  whether  any  later  glass  ever 
equaled  the  three  lancet  windows  and  the  western  rose 
of  Chartres  Cathedral,  the  earliest  of  these  dating  from 
the  end  of  the  12th  century.1  It  is  to  be  noted  that 
in  the  borders  and  decorative  details  of  the  early  Gothic 
windows  Romanesque  forms  are  persistent,  as  also  in 
the  illumination  of  manuscripts.  See  Figs.  334,  337, 
338 ;  Figure  335 ;  and  Plate  XIX. 

Painted  Decoration. 

As  in  the  Romanesque  period,  it  is  probable  that  wall- 
painting  in  France  was  confined  to  the  chapels  and  to 
a  few  important  spaces  in  the  general  design.  Possibly 
all  the  capitals  and  chief  moldings  may  also  have  been 
picked  out  with  bright  color  in  the  hollows  and  gilding 
on  the  projecting  fillets.  We  know  that  most  of  the 
figure-sculpture  was  painted,  and  vestiges  of  the  original 
color  decoration  can  still  be  detected  in  some  cases.  The ' 
vault-fillings  were  in  many  cases  not  painted,  their  care- 
ful jointing  showing  that  they  were  not  meant  to  be 
plastered.  There  were,  however,  exceptions  to  this  rule, 

i  See  the  admirable  account  of  these  windows  in  Henry  Adams'  "Mont 
St.  Michel  and  Chartres,"  published  for  the  American  Institute  of  Archi- 
tects, Boston,  1913. 

349 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 


and  it  is  likely  that  not  a  few  were  painted  blue  with 
gilt  stars.  From  vestiges  of  the  original  painting  dis- 
covered in  the  Sainte  Chapelle  at  Paris  a  complete  in- 
terior decoration  in  color  was  carried  out  in  that  chapel 
about  1860.  The  result  is  gorgeous,  but  the  opaque 
colors  of  the  brilliantly  painted  walls  suffer  under  the 
glare  of  transmitted  color  through  the  windows,  and  this 


FIG.  360.     EARLY  ENGLISH  CARVING,    a,  FROM  CHURCH  AT  STONE,  KENT; 
b,  LINCOLN  CATHEDRAL;  c,  ELY  CATHEDRAL. 

probably  explains  why  interior  coloration  was  not  more 
general  after  the  12th  century.  The  essays  in  color- 
decoration  by  Viollet-le-Duc  in  the  chapels  of  Notre 
Dame  are  far  less  brilliant,  but  also  less  interesting. 

In  conclusion,  it  should  be  noted  that  the  French 
handling  of  decorative  detail  of  all  kinds  was  in  general 
more  logical,  more  strictly  architectural,  than  in  other 
countries,  with  the  possible  exception  of  England.  Ele- 
gance and  propriety  of  design  are  combined  in  an 
eminent  degree  in  nearly  all  French  Gothic  ornament. 

350 


FIG.  361. — EARLY  ENGLISH  CAPITALS,  FROM  CASTS  IN  METROPOLITAN  MUSEUM, 

NEW  YORK 


» '//jskX'W'J.BjAN   -'///^-^-•'  Jj 


FIG.  362. — DETAIL  OF  ANGEL  CHOIR,  LINCOLN  CATHEDRAL 


FIG.    363.    DECORATED 

CAPITAL:  BEVERLEY 

CATHEDRAL. 


SCHOOLS  OF  GOTHIC  ORNAMENT 

English  Gothic  Ornament. 

The  English  work  of  the  first  two  periods,  as  com- 
pared with  the  French,  shows  a  general  predominance 
of  decorative  over  structural  f  ^\ 

conceptions,  but  without  sacri- 
fice of  structural  propriety.  It 
displays  less  of  severe  logic,  but 
often  more  of  charm ;  less  vigor, 
but  often  greater  delicacy  and 
richness.  English  cathedral  in- 
teriors, while  far  less  lofty  and 
majestic  than  the  French,  are 
generally  more  ornate,  richer  in  the  play  of  light  and 
shade,  often  more  beautiful.  All  the  details  are  on  a 

smaller  scale,  and  re- 
markable effects  are 
produced  by  mul- 
tiplied repetition. 
The  moldings  are 
finer  and  more  num- 
erous, the  shaft-clus- 
terings more  com- 
plex, the  carved  orna- 
ment more  varied 
and  abundant  (Plate 
XX,  1-;  Figures 
362,363,364).  On 
the  other  hand,  the 
exteriors  were  far 
less  ornate  than  the 

FIG.  364.    a,  FINIAL,  WELLS  CHAPTER         ti  „      v»       j.u       n 

HOUSE.    6,  CROCKET,  BEVEHLEY.  -French;    the     ngUTe- 

353 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 


FIG.    365.    ENGLISH    MOLDING    ENRICH- 
MENTS. 


sculpture  was  great- 
ly inferior,  both  in 
amount  and  quality. 

Carving. 

Its  variety  is 
equaled  by  its  rich- 
ness, in  the  first  two 
periods,  cir,  1200- 
1375.  The  foliage 
was  at  first  of  min- 
ute trilobes,  perhaps 
of  the  herba  sacra 
or  water-arum,  with 
globular  leaflets 

beautifully  curled 
and  deeply  under- 
cut in  dense  clusters 
in  capitals,  corbels, 
crockets,  hollow 


Fro.  366.    SPANDREL,  CHURCH  AT  STONE,  KENT. 
354 


SCHOOLS  OF  GOTHIC  ORNAMENT 

moldings  and  spandrels,  the  leaves  growing,  as  it  were, 
out  of  the  shafts  or  moldings  (Fig.  360;  Figure  361). 
Later  the  foliage  became  highly  naturalistic,  wreathed 


FIG.  367.    ABOVE,  THIFOHIUM,  WESTMINSTER  ABBEY;  BELOW,  DETAIL  OF 
DIAPERING  OF  MAIN  ARCADE. 

in  bunches  about  the  capitals  (Fig.  363;  also  ante  Fig. 
316),  or  forming  vines  in  the  arch-moldings  of  door- 
ways, as  in  that  of  the  chapter-house  of  Southwell  or 
those  of  Lichfield  Cathedral.  The  oak  and  maple  oc- 
cur most  frequently  (Fig.  364  a) ;  later  sea-weed  and 

355 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

other  intricate  forms 
appear  (Fig.  364  b) ; 
and  finally  there  ap- 
pears a  mingling  of 
highly  conventional 
forms  with  naturalistic 
vines  and  flowers. 
The  hollows  of  mold- 
ings are  studded  with 
leaves,  dogtooth  orna- 
ments and  ball-flowers, 
or  filled  with  running 
vines  (Fig.  365),  un- 
til about  1350,  after 
which  molding-enrich- 
ments became  more 
rare.  Surface  carving 
in  panels  and  on  arch- 
spandrels  is  much  more 
frequent  than  in 
France  (Fig.  366).  Diaper  patterns  occur  on  flat 
surfaces,  especially  spandrels  of  arcades,  as  in  the  nave 
of  Westminster  Abbey  (Fig.  367). 

English  figure-sculpture  is  decidedly  inferior  to  the 
French ;  there  is  nothing  like  the  stupendous  porches  of 
the  French  cathedrals  with  their  wealth  of  statues  and 
reliefs.  The  west  front  of  Wells  Cathedral  is  the  only 
example  of  an  English  west  front  adorned  profusely 
with  sculpture,  and  but  little  remains  of  the  original 
figures  there.  Some  of  the  late  porches,  however, 
erected  in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  are 

356 


FIG.    368.    PART   OF    WOODEN    SCREEN, 
MANCHESTER  CATHEDRAL. 


SCHOOLS  OF  GOTHIC  ORNAMENT 


FIG.  368  A.    "CURVILINEAR"  PANELS  IN  WOOD. 

richly  adorned  with  figures  in  niches,  as  at  Exeter  and 
Canterbury.  Very  rich  in  fig- 
ure-sculpture were  also  some 
of  the  great  loth-century 
reredoses  of  English  cathed- 
rals, as  those  of  Winchester, 
St.  Saviour's  at  Southwark 
(cathedral),  and  some  others. 
Mention  has  already  been 
made  in  Chapter  XVI I  of  the 
"Angel  Choir"  of  Lincoln,  il- 
lustrated as  to  its  sculptured 
triforium-spandrels  in  Fig- 
ure 362. 

Woodwork  of  all  sorts  the 
English  excelled  in,  especially 
in  the  14th  and  15th  centuries. 

357 


Fio.  369.     "POPPY   HEAD." 


Fio.  370.    PLATE   TRACERY,  LIL- 

LINGTON,    NOHTHAXTS. 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

The  wooden  choir-screens, 
choir-stalls,  pew-ends,  font- 
covers  and  the  like,  were 
often  of  great  beauty  (see 
ante,  Fig.  327),  with  elabo- 
rate surface-tracery,  can- 
opy-work, and  carved  gro- 
tesques. Very  character- 
istic are  the  "poppy-head" 
finials  to  the  pew-ends. 
Fig.  368  illustrates  part  of  a  carved  wooden  screen,  of 
which  there  are  many  in  English  parish  churches;  Fig. 
368A,  14th-century  surface-paneling  in  wood;  Fig. 
369  a  poppy-head  finial.  But  the  greatest  glory  in  the 
later  woodworkers  was  the  oaken  ceilings  of  halls  and 
churches;  these  will  be  discussed  later. 

Moldings  were  generally  richer,  more  minute  and 
more  varied  than  the  French, 
more  subtile  in  profile,  and 
more  often  enriched,  as  al- 
ready explained  Fig.  365). 
The  English  composed  their 
groups  of  Gothic  moldings 
so  as  to  produce  successions 
of  deep  undercut  hollows 
contrasting  with  boldly  pro- 
jecting roll-moldings  or  bow- 
tels.  There  was  continuous 
increase  in  richness  and  com- 
plexity until  1350,  after 
which  there  is  observable  a 

358 


Fio.  371.     EAST  WINDOW, 
RAUNDS,  NOBTHANTS. 


SCHOOLS  OF  GOTHIC  ORNAMENT 

falling-off  in  vigor  and  effectiveness:  the  hollows  are 
flatter  and  broader,  the  rolls  and  bowtels  less  vigorous 
in  their  contrast  with  the  hollows.  The  bowtel — a  roll- 
molding  with  a  slightly  salient  lip  or  fillet,  giving  it  an 
almost  pear-shaped  section — is  peculiar  to  English  archi- 


FIG.   372.     Ftowixo   OR   "CURVILINEAR"   TRACERY;   a,   ITHI.IXGBORO', 

NOBTHANTS;  6,  OVER,  CAMBRIDGESHIRE;  C,  LlTTLE  ADDINGTOK, 
NORTHANTS. 

tecture.  Another  noticeable  English  feature  is  the 
label  or  drip-molding  over  the  pier-arches  in  church  in- 
teriors, as  well  as  over  exterior  arches,  doors  and  win- 
dows; the  French  confined  this  feature  wholly  to  ex- 
teriors. The  English  never  affected  the  intricate  inter- 
secting moldings  of  late  French  and  German  Gothic 
art. 

859 


Tracery. 

In  this  the  English  equaled  and  even  surpassed  the 
French  architects.  There  is  a  more  systematic  and 
logical  progression  from  lancet-windows  coupled  or 
grouped  under  a  discharging  arch  (Plate  XX,  6), 
through  the  stages  of  plate  or  perforated  tracery  (ib.  7 
and  Fig.  370) ;  of  molded  tracery  in  the  window-head 

springing  from  mullions  of  slen- 
der clustered  shafts  (8),  to  the 
perfection  of  "Decorated"  bar- 
tracery,  with  two  or  three  "or- 
ders" of  moldings  and  open  cusp- 
ing  (9).  The  "Decorated"  pe- 
riod is  generally  considered  to  last 
till  the  "Perpendicular"  period, 
i.e.  to  about  1375.  But  the 
Geometric  style  of  tracery,  com- 
posed chiefly  of  circles  or  wheels 
and  pointed  arches,  began  as 
early  as  1320  or  earlier  to  give 
way  to  flowing  lines,  as  in  an 

Fio.     373.     PERPEXDICULAB  J 

TRACERY,  BEAUCHAMP       early    example    at    Wells.     This 

CHAPEL,  WARWICK.  ,  ,  ,  .  ,,     ,      ,. 

ushered    in    what    is    called    the 

Curvilinear  style  of  tracery,  which  has  already  been  men- 
tioned as  the  probable  prototype  and  parent  of  the 
French  Flamboyant  style  of  tracery.  Examples  of 
Flowing  or  Curvilinear  tracery  are  in  Plate  XXI,  10, 
and  in  Fig.  372.  This  phase  of  tracery  design  was  of 
short  duration  in  England.  Instead  of  developing,  as 
in  France,  into  a  style  of  ornate  fantasies,  it  gave  way, 
somewhat  suddenly,  to  the  mechanical  rigidity  of  the 

360 


SCHOOLS  OF  GOTHIC  ORNAMENT 

Perpendicular  style  (Plate  XXI,  11,  and  Fig.  373). 
This  last  was  structurally  the  most  correct  form  of  tra- 
cery, though  decoratively  inferior  to  the  two  preceding 
stages.  Thus  English  tracery  passed  from  a  structural 
origin  through  a  decorative  development,  to  a  structural 
culmination  and  decline;  while  in  France  the  progress 
was  throughout  to  the  end  in  the  direction  of  a  purely 
decorative  evolution. 

Round  windows  were  less  important  in  England  than 
in  France.  The  transepts  of  Lincoln  show  an  early 
"plate"  circular  window  (the  "Dean's  eye"),  and  a  late 
curvilinear  rose,  called  "the  Bishop's  eye."  The  tran- 
sept roses  of  Westminster  Abbey  (Plate  XXI,  13)  are 
almost  French  in  character.  The  English  preferred 
vast  East  and  West  windows  to  the  round  windows  of 
France,  and  made  of  them  sometimes  superb  composi- 
tions, unequaled  in  their  kind  elsewhere,  as  were  the 
French  rose  windows  in  theirs.  Tracery  was  carried 
across  wall  surfaces  to  form  rich  paneling,  especially  in 
the  Perpendicular  period.  Openwork  gables  and  balus- 
trades are  not  important. 

Vaults  and  Ceilings. 

In  these  the  English  developed  phases  of  art  wholly 
their  own.  Skilled  in  shipbuilding  and  framed  struc- 
tures, they  simplified  the  problem  of  vault-construction 
by  multiplying  the  ribs,  thus  breaking  up  the  twisted 
surfaces  of  the  fillings  into  long  narrow  triangles  easy 
to  handle.  These  additional  ribs  were  called  tiercerons 
(Figure  303)  ;  they  terminated  in  a  horizontal  ridge-rib 
at  the  summit  of  the  vault.  Later,  short  bridging  ribs, 

361 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

called  liernes  were  added  to  the  system,  forming  complex 
patterns  ("star"  and  "net"  vaults),  as  in  Winchester, 
Norwich,  Canterbury  Cathedrals,  Gloucester  choir  and 
Lady-chapel,  and  many  other  examples  (Figure  304  a) . 


Fio.  374.     HAMMER  BEAM  ROOF,  TRUNCH  CHURCH. 

The  decorative  idea  thenceforth  predominated;  the 
tiercerons  being  given  the  same  curvature  throughout, 
generated  surfaces  of  revolution  like  inverted  semi- 
conoids  of  concave  profile,  their  bases  meeting  at  the  top, 
leaving  lozenge-shaped  voids  which  were  filled  up  by 
various  decorative  devices.  The  ribs,  no  longer  struc- 
tural, were  simply  carved  in  relief  on  the  conoids,  and 
the  whole  vault  was  covered  with  a  patterning  of  these 
fine  decorative  ribs  and  adorned  with  rosettes  and  often 

362 


SCHOOLS  OF  GOTHIC  ORNAMENT 

long  pendants  (retro-choir  of  Peterboro;  cloisters  of 
Gloucester;  King's  College  Chapel,  Henry  VII's  chapel 
at  Westminster,  etc.) .  The  decorative  splendor  of  the 


FIG.  374  A.    OPEN-TIMBER  CEILIXO,  LAVEXHAM  CHURCH,  SUFFOLK. 

English  vaulting  is  of  the  highest  order,  and  nothing 
equal  to  these  vaults  is  found  in  any  other  school  of 
Gothic  design  (Figure  30  b). 

No  less  remarkable  are  the  superb  oaken  ceilings 
borne  on  huge  arched  trusses,  of  which  the  highest  de- 
velopment is  the  hammer-beam  type  as  illustrated  in  the 

363 


roof  of  Westminster  Hall  (1395-1525).  All  the  de- 
tails of  these  roofs  were  rich  and  appropriate  to  the  ma- 
terial, and  the  ends  of  the  horizontal  hammer-beams  were 
frequently  adorned  with  carved  heads  or  sculptured 
angels,  while  the  glow  of  discreetly-used  color  and  gild- 
ing added  to  the  effect  (Figs.  374,  374  A). 

The  English  stained  glass  differed  from  the  French 
less  in  fundamental  character  than  in  detailed  treat- 
ment. The  English  windows  were  generally  lighter  in 
tone  than  the  French,  at  least  after  the  earliest  period 
when  it  is  likely  that  there  was  a  strong  French  in- 
fluence. The  English  developed  to  great  splendor  the 
"canopy"  window,  in  which  each  "light"  or  vertical  divi- 
sion is  occupied  by  a  life-size  figure  of  a  saint,  prince  or 
noble,  under  a  canopy  of  splendid  architecture  executed 
usually  in  yellow  glass,  as  if  to  represent  gold.  An 
example  is  illustrated  in  Figure  335,  from  York  Cathe- 
dral. 

Unhappily  the  destruction  of  "idolatrous"  glass  by 
the  Puritans  and  by  various  "restorers,"  beginning  with 
Wyatt  in  the  early  nineteenth  century,  has  left  but  little 
of  the  old  glass  to  our  day,  at  least  compared  with  the 
wealth  of  France  in  such  glass.  Some  of  the  finest  ex- 
amples are  in  Canterbury  Cathedral. 

Painting. 

As  in  France,  but  little  painted  decoration  remains 
from  the  Middle  Ages  in  England,  except  in  moldings 
and  minor  details :  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  polychrome 
decoration  was  almost  universal.  A  few  examples  of 
such  decoration  are  shown  in  Plate  XX. 

364 


SCHOOLS  OF  GOTHIC  ORNAMENT 

Books  Recommended: 

As  before,  DEHIO  AND  BEZOLD,  FROTHINGHAM,  MOORE, 
PARKER,  SIMPSON.  Also  for  English  Gothic,  Architectural 
Association  Sketch  Book  (London). — ATKINSON  AND  ATKIN- 
SON: Gothic  Ornaments  selected  from  various  Cathedrals  and 
Churches  in  England  (London,  1829). — F.  BOND:  Gothic 
Architecture  in  England;  Cathedrals  of  England  and  Wales; 
Wood  Carvings  in  English  Churches;  Fonts  and  Font  Covers; 
Screens  and  Galleries  in  English  Churches;  Westminster  Ab- 
bey; Introduction  to  English  Church  Architecture  (Oxford  and 
London,  1905—1913). — BRANDON:  Analysis  of  Gothic  Archi- 
tecture (London,  1849)  ;  Open  Timber  Roofs  of  the  Middle 
Ages  (London,  1849). — T.  T.  BURY:  Remains  of  Ecclesiastical 
Woodwork  (London,  1847). — J.  K.  COLLING:  English  Mediaeval 
Foliage;  Details  of  Gothic  Architecture;  Gothic  Ornaments 
(London,  1848-1856). — E.  A.  FREEMAN:  An  Essay  on  the 
Origin  and  Development  of  Window  Tracery  in  England  (Lon- 
don, n.  d.). — C.  MOORE:  The  Mediaeval  Church  Architecture  of 
England  (New  York,  1912). — PALEY:  A  Manual  of  Gothic 
Mouldings  (London,  1845). — T.  RICKMAN:  An  Attempt  to  Dis- 
criminate the  Styles  (London,  1817). — E.  SHARPS:  Mouldings 
of  the  Six  Periods;  Treatise  on  the  Rise  and  Progress  of  Win- 
dow Tracery  in  England  (London,  1871). — Spring  Gardens 
Association  Sketch  Book  (London). — Consult  also  monographs 
on  particular  churches  and  cathedrals. 


865 


CHAPTER  XIX 

PARTICULAR  SCHOOLS  OF  GOTHIC   ORNAMENT 

II.  GERMAN,  SPANISH,  ITALIAN 

German  Gothic  Ornament. 

Cleverness  of  technical  execution  and  a  tendency 
towards  displays  of  skill  rather  than  purity  of  design 
mark  the  German  Gothic  work.  There  is  much  borrow- 
ing from  French  models  and  Cologne,  the  greatest  of  all 
Gothic  cathedrals,  is  clearly  modeled  after  Amiens  and 
Beauvais.  Most  of  the  German  Gothic  details  of  the 
first  two  periods  are  based  on  French  types.  In  the 
naturalistic  rendering  of  the  leaves  of  the  oak,  maple, 
vine,  etc.,  the  German  cleverness  of  technic  found  free 
scope,  and  in  the  14th  century  began  to  show  independ- 
ence of  French  models.  There  is  abundant  use  of  the 
grotesque,  in  which  a  very  Germanic  broad  humor  often 
takes  the  place  of  the  French  artistic  refinement. 

The  moldings  generally  resemble  the  French.  In  the 
Florid  period  intricate  intersections  of  moldings  of  dif- 
ferent profiles  seem  to  have  given  special  delight  to  the 
German  stone-cutters  and  wood-carvers  because  of  the 
technical  difficulty  of  their  execution  (Figures  339,1 
375,381). 

lit  is  difficult  to  distinguish  between  some  of  the  French,  German  and 
Flemish  work  of  the  late  Gothic  period.  The  Strassburg  pulpit  may  be 
either  a  French  or  a  German  work. 

366 


FIG.  375. — PORCH  OF  CHURCH  OF  ST.  LAWRENCE,  NUREMBERG 


FIG.  383. — VAULTING,  CATHEDRAL  OF  SALAMANCA 


B 

£ 


SCHOOLS  OF  GOTHIC  ORNAMENT 


Tracery. 

It     was     in     this 
the     German     love 
of  intricate  and  fan- 
tastic    design     and 
clever    workmanship 
achieved   its   highest 
successes.    Such  win- 
dows   as    those    of 
Cologne,  St.  Cather- 
ine   at    Oppenheim, 
the       Frauenkirche, 
St.  Sebaldus  and  St. 
Lorenz    at    Nurem- 
berg, the  minster  at 
Ulm  and  the  choir  of 
the  Palatine  Chapel 
at  Aachen,  show  skil- 
ful geometric  design 
with   extraordinarily 
long,    slender    mul- 
lions.     Often  the  tra- 
cery is  doubled,  the  outer  plane  of  the  window  being 
adorned  with  purely  decorative  mullions  and  tracery,  all 
quite  useless,  in  addition  to  that  which  holds  the  glass 
( Ulm,  Strassburg) .     In  the  fifteenth  century  the  design 
becomes  flamboyant,  the  vesica  ( Fischblase  =  fish  blad- 
der) or  palm-leaf  form  constituting  a  favorite  and  much- 
multiplied  detail  in  the  intricate  patterning.     Quadri- 
laterals and  triangles  with  curved  sides  are  frequent. 
Balustrades  are  often  of  perplexingly  ingenious  patterns. 

369 


FIG.  380.     ALTAR-PIECE  OH   REREDOS,  Ess- 
LJNGEX  CHURCH. 


FIG.  380  A.     CARVED  PEW  END;  GER- 
MAX  MIDDLE  GOTHIC. 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

Openwork  or  traceried  spires  are  peculiarly  German 
features,  as  at  Freiburg  in  Baden,  Esslingen,  Strass- 
burg,  and  the  modern  reproductions  of  old  designs  at 
Cologne,  Ulm  and  Ratisbon  (Regensburg).  The  spire 

loses  its  function  as  a 
true  roof,  but  the  ef- 
fect is  highly  decora- 
tive (Figure  377). 

Openwork  gables 
and  traceried  walls  are 
frequent;  and  the  trac- 
ery of  pinnacles  and 
canopies  for  taber- 
nacles, shrines  ( Sac- 
ramentshaiislein )  choir-stalls,  pulpits  and  rood-screens 
is  intricate  beyond  description  and  executed  with 
consummate  skill.  Some  of  the  richest  screen-work  in 
France  (e.g.  at  Alby)  is  thought  to  be  of  German  work- 
manship. Branch-tracer y,  an  utterly  illogical  and  mon- 
umentally inappropriate  naturalistic  copying  of  vine- 
branches  or  rustic-work,  appears  as  the  last  stage  of  de- 
cline in  German  Gothic  art.  Figures  378  and  379,  from 
Strassburg,  illustrate  the  richness  of  the  best  German 
late  Gothic  work. 

Stained  Glass. 

A  window  from  the  earlier  apse  of  Cologne  cathedral 
has  been  preserved  in  the  present  structure  begun  in 
1248;  in  which  there  are  also  fine  examples  of  German 
14th  century  glass.  Others  are  to  be  seen  of  various 
dates  at  Altenburg,  Nuremberg  (see  Fig.  336),  Strass- 

370 


f 
ft 


h 


SCHOOLS  OF  GOTHIC  ORNAMENT 

burg,  etc.  In  principle  German  glass  is  like  the  French, 
but  with  much  more  of  grisaille,  foliage  and  geometric 
patterning,  and  less  of  figures  until  the  15th  century, 
when  a  pictorial  style  came  in 
with  much  painting  in  place  of 
mosaic  or  pot-metal  coloring,  and 
a  very  frequent  use  of  figure-sub- 
jects. 

In  the  minor  arts — wood-carv- 
ing, metal-work,  etc. — the  Ger- 
mans produced  much  that  is  in- 
teresting, generally  marked  by 
the  same  qualities  of  fantastic  ca- 
price, quaint  humor  and  technical 
excellence,  to  which  attention  has 
already  been  called  in  other  de- 
partments of  art  (Figs.  380,  381; 
Figure  382). 

Spanish  Gothic  Ornament. 

Medieval  Christian  art  in  Spain 
was  subject  to  diverse  influences, 
which  prevented  a  homogeneous 
organic  development  of  style,  but 
helped  to  impart  to  it  a  highly 
picturesque  character.  The  con- 
temporary Moorish  art  stimulated  the  tendency  towards 
surface  ornamentation,  while  German,  French  and  even 
English  characteristics  occur  in  not  a  few  cases.  The 
Spanish  fondness  for  unrestrained  exuberance  of  orna- 
ment overrode  the  structural  logic  of  Gothic  design  and 

373 


Fro.  381.    GF.RMAX  LATE 
GOTHIC    CARVIXG. 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

produced,  in  the  fifteenth  century  especially,  composi- 
tions of  extraordinary  and  fantastic  richness  (Figure 
384). 

Spanish  Gothic  ornament  is  especially  rich  about  the 
doorways  of  churches  and  in  the  arcades  of  cloisters  and 
patios  of  the  14th  and  15th  centuries.  Tabernacle  work, 
tracery  and  cusping  of  great  complexity,  and  heraldic 
escutcheons  form  the  chief  resources  of  such  decoration 
as  is  not  directly  inspired  from  foreign  models. 

The  traceried 
spires  of  Burgos 
suggest  German 
work ;  the  general 
decorative  details  of 
the  facade  suggest 
both  Amiens  and 
Ratisbon.  The  in- 
FIO.  386.  MUDEJAB  DECORATION.  terior  decoration  of 
this  and  other  churches  is  hard  to  classify  or  formulate,  it 
is  so  varied  and  so  capricious  in  character,  though  almost 
always  effective  (Figure  385).  Vault  decoration  fol- 
lowed in  Spain  no  well-defined  principle,  but  in  its  use  of 
multiple  ribs  resembles  the  German  rather  than  the  Eng- 
lish Gothic.  The  rib-patterns  though  often  designed  as 
abstract  decorations  rather  than  as  a  structural  frame- 
work (Figure  383),  are  nevertheless  always  true  ribs, 
not  mere  moldings  carved  out  of  the  masonry  as  in  Eng- 
lish fan-vaulting.  An  occasional  admixture  of  Moor- 
ish details  with  the  Gothic  (Fig.  386)  produces  what  is 
called  the  Mudejar  style. 

Window  tracery  is  of  less  importance  in  Spain  than 

374- 


FIG.  384. — PATIO  (COURT)  OF  PALACE  OF  THE  INFANTADO,  GUADALAJARA 


FIG.  385. — INTERIOR  OF  CHAPEL  OF  THE  CONDESTABILE,  RI:KGOS  CATHEDRAL 


FIG.  387. — DETAIL,  FLANK  OF  FLORENCE  CATHEDRAL 


SCHOOLS  OF  GOTHIC  ORNAMENT 

in  more  northern  countries  because  of  the  small  size  of 
windows  required  in  a  hot  climate;  on  the  other  hand, 
tracery  as  a  surface  decoration  is  carried  to  the  extreme 
of  elaborate  complexity. 

A  striking  characteristic  frequently  met  with  in  Span- 
ish decorative  work  is  the  effective  way  in  which  the 
most  fanciful  and  overwrought  ornamentation  is  brought 
into  close  contrast  with  the  most  severely  plain  surfaces, 
and  minute  detail  with  grandeur  of  scale. 

Italian  Gothic  Ornament:  the  System, 

The  principles  of  design  that  dominated  the  Gothic 
styles  of  western  Europe  never  found  acceptance  in 
Italy.  The  structural  logic  of  the  French  and  Eng- 
lish builders  and  their  system  of  ribbed  vaulting,  isolated 
supports  and  external  buttresses  were  foreign  to  Italian 
traditions  and  ideals.  The  opportunist  methods  of  the 
Italian  Romanesque  builders  and  the  persistent  tradi- 
tions of  Roman  design,  with  its  pilasters,  round  arches, 
cornices  and  acanthus  leaves,  were  more  in  accord  with 
Italian  taste.  When  the  intercourse  between  French, 
German  and  Italian  chapters  of  the  Benedictine  and 
Cistercian  orders  began  to  make  the  splendid  church 
architecture  of  the  West  known  to  the  Italians,  the  re- 
sult was  only  a  very  inadequate  attempt  to  add  some  of 
the  superficial  details  of  that  architecture  to  buildings 
constructed  after  the  traditional  Romanesque  fashion. 
Pointed  arches,  steep  gables,  pinnacles,  finials  and 
crockets,  and  tracery  strangely  modified  or  travestied, 
were  applied  to  buildings  wholly  Italian  in  design,  with- 
out reference  to  the  principles  underlying  the  design  and 

377 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

use  of  these  details  in  the  West  (Figure  387).  Each 
building  was  conceived  of  as  a  walled  enclosure — some- 
times vaulted,  sometimes  roofed  with  wood — upon  which 
to  spread  decoration,  not  as  an  organic  structure  to  be 
made  decorative  in  itself.  The  form  and  outline  of  a 
church  facade  had  no  necessary  relation  to  the  form  of 


FIG.  389.     DETAIL  FBOM  PORTAL  OF  CATHEDRAL,  LUCCA:  CARVED  RIXCEAU 
AXD  MARBLE  INLAY. 

the  church  behind  it;  it  was  a  screen,  a  surface  to  be 
ornamented  like  a  frontispiece  (Figure  388).  The 
flanks  might  or  might  not  be  similarly  adorned.  The 
interior  provided  areas  for  mural  paintings.  The  ma- 
terials for  exterior  decoration  were  round  and  pointed 
windows,  gables,  pinnacles,  pilaster-strips,  panels,  sta- 
tues, colored  marble,  inlays,  mosaic,  anything  that  would 
produce  patterns  in  light  and  shade,  form  and  color 
(Plate  XXII).  The  facades  of  Sienna  Cathedral 
(1284)  and  Orvieto  (1310),  and  the  flanks  and  east  end 

378 


SCHOOLS  OF  GOTHIC  ORNAMENT 

of  the  Duomo  at  Florqnce  (1357-1408)  illustrate  this 
conception  of  the  relations  of  architecture  and  ornament. 
The  superb  campanile  at  Florence  (1334-50)  by  Giotto, 
Gaddi  and  Talenti,  is  its  most  perfect  embodiment  in 
the  admirable  harmony  of  the  ornament  with  the  struc- 


FIG.  390.    CAPITAL  FROM  A  TOMB  IN  STA.  CHIARA,  NAPLES. 

tural  lines  and  mass  (Plate  XXII).  Polychromy 
rather  than  light  and  shade  was  the  chosen  medium  of 
decoration ;  the  use  of  Gothic  forms  was  a  concession  to 
fashion  which  prevented  a  truly  rational  development  of 
style.  In  the  works  just  mentioned  and  countless 
others,  black,  red,  green,  yellow  and  white  marbles,  in 
panels,  stripes  and  inlays,  are  mingled  with  pseudo- 
Gothic  and  half-classic  details.  The  Roman  tradition 
refused  to  die  (Fig.  389),  and  Corinthian  capitals 
(Fig.  390) ,  the  Attic  base,  round  arches  with  archi volts, 
acanthus  leaves,  rinceaux  and  moldings  of  Roman  pro- 

379 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

file,  are  used  with  no  sense  of  their  incongruity  with 
pointed  arches,  twisted  shafts,  crockets  and  tracery. 

Architectural  Details. 

All  the  Gothic  forms  are  capriciously  varied.     The 
most  notable  single  feature  is  the  spirally  twisted  shaft, 


FIG.  391.    TOMB  IN  SAX  ANTONIO,  PADUA. 

frequently  used  as  a  mullion  in  subdivided  openings,  and 
as  a  jamb-shaft  in  recessed  doorways.  It  is  clearly  a 
survival  from  Romanesque  practice  (Fig.  391;  Plate 
XXII,  5,  6).  Mosaic  and  inlay  the  Italians  could 
never  give  up,  and  as  their  Gothic  decoration  was  pre- 
eminently a  decoration  of  surfaces,  inlaid  bands  and 
panels  of  colored  marbles  in  geometric  patterns  appear 
perfectly  in  place  alongside  of  Gothic  pinnacles  and  trac- 
ery (Figure  394).  The  tracery  was  rarely — except  in 
Venice  and  in  a  few  churches  built  by  foreign  artists — 
designed  as  a  structure  to  be  built  up  in  stone  after  the 
true  Gothic  fashion ;  it  was  rather  a  surface  of  stone  to  be 

380 


FIG.  388. — CENTRAL  PORTION,  FACADE  OF  CATHEDRAL  OF  ORVIETO 


FIG.  392. — TOMB  OF  CAN  SIGNORIO  SCALIGER,  VERONA 


FIG.  392A. — TOMB  OF  GIOVANNI  SCALIGER,  VERONA 


perforated  and  carved,  as  in  the  Duomo  windows  and 
the  Or  San  Michele  at  Florence  (Figure  395).  In 
Venice,  however  a  remarkable  and  more  truly  structural 
type  of  tracery  was  de- 
veloped in  the  14th  cen- 
tury in  secular  build- 
ings; first  in  the  majes- 
tic arcades  of  the  Doge's 
Palace,  and  then  in  pri- 
vate palace  fa9ades,  in  a 
style  singularly  vigorous 
and  original  (Fig.  396). 
The  triforium  tracery  of 
San  Martino  (cathe- 

FIG.  396.     FACADE  OF  A  GOTHIC 
dl'al)     at    LuCCa    (1370),  PALACE,   VENICE. 

has  much  of  the  Western  character.     That  of  Milan 
cathedral   (1386 — )   is  presumably  of  German  design. 

Minor  Works. 

In  these  the  Italian  decorative  genius  found  its  most 
congenial  expression.  Tombs,  altars,  chapels,  shrines, 
ciboria,  choir-stalls,  fountains  and  pavements  afforded 
free  scope  for  Italian  fancy  and  love  of  color.  In  these 
inlay  and  mosaic,  Cosmati-work  (see  ante  page  200)  and 
surface  decoration  were  perfectly  appropriate.  The  al- 
tar of  the  church  of  Or  San  Michele,  Florence,  by 
Orcagna  (Figure  397)  ;  the  tombs  of  the  Scaligers  in 
Verona  (Figure  392)  ;  wall-tombs  and  canopy- tombs  in 
Venice  and  elsewhere,  are  not  surpassed  by  works  of  like 
purpose  anywhere. 


383 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 


Decorative  Painting. 

The  remarkable  schools  of  painting  which  arose  and 
flourished  in  Florence  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth 
centuries  and  in  Sienna  in  the  fourteenth,  fall  outside  the 
field  of  a  history  of  ornament,  except  as  to  the  sub- 
ordinate details  of  their  mural  decorations.  The  cul- 
mination of  this  school  is  seen  in  the  frescoes  of  Giotto 
(1267-1337),  especially  in  the  church  of  S.  Francesco 
at  Assisi,  and  of  his  followers,  the  Gaddi,  etc.  The 
decorations  of  vault-ribs  and  of  borders  of  pictured 
panels  on  walls  and  vaults  show  a  mingling  of  classic 
survivals  with  geometric  details 
evidently  inspired  from  Cosmati 
work  and  geometric  inlays  (Fig. 
398).  The  persistence  of  classic 
rinceaux  and  acanthus  leaves  ap- 
pears often  like  a  foretaste  or  an- 
ticipation of  the  Renaissance,  in- 
stead of  a  lingering  reminiscence 
of  traditions  never  quite  lost  since 
the  days  of  the  Roman  Empire. 
Carvings  like  those  on  the  Man- 
I  dorla  door  of  the  Florentine 
I  Duomo  (dr.  1399;  Fig.  399)  are 
11  evidences  of  the  vitality  of  those 
1  traditions,  which  the  foreign  Gothic 
4 1  fashion  could  not  wholly  drive  out. 
^Other  painted  decorations,  as  in  S. 

FIG.     399.    DETAIL      FROM     *  •       AT  j   &      \     j 

THE   MANDORLA   DOOR.     Anastasia,  Verona  and  S.  Andrea, 

FLORENCE  CATHEDRAL.         Vercilli,    and    the    cloisters    of    the 

384, 


FIG.  393. — CATHEDRAL  OF  SIENA 


FIG.  394. — TWISTED  COLUMN  AND  INLAY,  CAMPANILE,  FLORENCE 


FIG.  395. — CARVED  TRACERY,  OR  SAN  MICHELE,  FLORENCE 


FIG.  398. — DETAIL,  PAINTED  WALL  AND  VAULT,  SANTA  CROCE,  FLORENCE 


SCHOOLS  OF  GOTHIC  ORNAMENT 

Spanish  Chapel  of  Sta.  Maria  Novella  at  Florence,  are 
of  a  more  distinctly  Gothic  character.  The  upper 
chapel  of  Sta.  Maria  in  the  Palazzo  Pubblico  at  Sienna 
is  another  noted  example. 

Wood  and  Metal, 

Choir-stalls  and  furniture  offered  abundant  oppor- 
tunity for  the  decorative  skill  of  the  Italian  wood-carv- 


FIG.  401.    CAPITALS,  DOGE'S  PALACE,  VENICE. 

ers,  who  often  combined  wood-inlay  or  intarsia  with 
their  carving.  But  so  many  of  these  medieval  wood- 
carvings  were  removed  to  be  replaced  in  the  fifteenth  and 
sixteenth  centuries  with  the  works  of  the  Renaissance 

387 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

artists,  that  this  phase  of  Italian  medieval  art  is  less  im- 
pressive than  some  others.  A  single  example  is  shown 
in  Figure  400  from  Molfetta;  it  shows  a  curious  survival 
of  earlier  tradition  in  the  almost  Romanesque  aspect  of 
the  animal  reliefs.  There  are  a  number  of  fine  medieval 
iron  grilles  in  Italian  churches,  and  the  grilles  surround- 
ing the  tombs  of  the  Scaligers  (Figure  392)  are  elegant 
examples  of  this  form  of  art. 

The  foregoing  paragraphs  have  sketched  only  in  the 
barest  outline  the  Gothic  ornament  of  Italy.  The  whole 
country  is  a  vast  museum  of  decorative  art  of  all  periods, 
— for  its  people,  from  the  days  of  ancient  Rome  to  our 
own,  have  always  been  decorators  first  of  all,  and  an 
encyclopaedic  volume  would  be  required  to  treat  ade- 
quately the  history  of  their  achievements  in  the  decora- 
tive arts. 

Conclusion. 

With  the  closing  years  of  the  fourteenth  century  in 
Italy,  and  a  century  later  in  western  and  northern  Eu- 
rope, the  Gothic  style  began  to  be  extinguished  by  the 
rapidly-developing  and  widely-spreading  art  of  the 
Renaissance.  Architecture  had  already  reached  the 
final  limit  of  its  structural  development  under  the  Gothic 
system,  and  was  sensibly  declining  in  power  and 
grandeur.  But,  as  we  have  seen,  a  splendid  decorative 
flowering  accompanied  this  decline  in  structural  origi- 
nality, and  reached  its  highest  level  of  richness  and  tech- 
nical perfection  in  the  fifteenth  century,  in  France,  Eng- 
land, Germany  and  Spain.  This  splendor  of  minute 
decoration,  of  complex  tracery,  realistic  pictorial  sculp- 

388 


FIG.  396. — DETAIL,  ALTAR  IN  OK  SAN 
MICHELE,  FLORENCE 


FIG.  399. — DETAIL  FROM  STALLS, 
MOLFETTA  CATHEDRAL 


SCHOOLS  OF  GOTHIC  ORNAMENT 

ture,  sumptuous  embroidery  and  showy  furniture  was, 
however,  the  final  coruscation  of  an  expiring  flame.  In 
Italy,  meanwhile,  the  new  flame  of  the  Renaissance  had 
been  kindled  and  had  been  growing  in  brilliancy  and 
spreading  as  it  grew  brighter.  The  Western  arts  long 
resisted  the  Italian  invasion;  they  refused  to  kindle  from 
this  new  flame,  to  copy  the  new  fashion.  But  the  new 
style  was  more  than  a  fashion;  it  was  the  expression  of  a 
fundamental  change  of  spirit,  of  a  new  artistic  point  of 
view  and  attitude,  of  a  new  civilization  and  new  ideals. 
The  old  order  was  passing  away,  and  by  the  middle  of 
the  sixteenth  century  Gothic  art  was  dead. 

Books  Recommended: 

As  before,  ADAMY,  DEHIO  AND  BEZOLD,  HASAK,  FROTHING- 
HAM,  UNGEWITTER.  Also,  for  the  German  Gothic,  BOISSEREE: 
Histoire  et  description  de  la  cathedrale  de  Cologne  (Munich, 
1842). — FOERSTER,  Denkmale  deutscher  Baukunst  (Leipzig, 
1855-69). — HARTEL:  Architektonische  Details  and  Ornament 
der  Kirchlichen  Baukunst  (Berlin,  1891). — KLINGENBERG:  Die 
ornament  ale  Baukunst  (Leipzig,  n.  d.). — E.  ATJSM  WERTH: 
Kunstdenkmaler  der  christlichen  Mittelalters  in  den  Rheinlan- 
den  (Leipzig,  1858). — For  the  Spanish  Gothic,  LAMPEREZ  Y 
ROMEA:  Historia  de  la  arquitectura  cristiana  Espanola,  etc. 
(Madrid,  1908-09). — Monumentos  Arquitectonicos  de  Espana 
(Madrid). — D.  ROBERTS:  Sketches  in  Spain  (London, 
1837). — SMITH:  Sketches  in  Spain  (London,  1883). — G.  E. 
STREET:  Gothic  Architecture  in  Spain  (New  Ed.,  London, 
1913). — WARING:  Architectural  Studies  in  Burgos  (London, 
1852). — WARING  AND  MACQUOID:  Examples  of  Architectural 
Art  in  Italy  and  Spain  (London). 

For  the  Italian  Gothic,  CUMMINGS:  A  History  of  Architec- 
ture in  Italy  (Boston,  1901). — GRUNER:  Terra-Cotta  Archi- 
tecture of  North  Italy  (London,  1867). — KING:  Study  Book 
of  Mediaeval  Art  (London,  1868). — NESFIELD:  Specimens  of 

391 


A  HISTORY  OF  ORNAMENT 

Mediceval  Architecture  (London,  1862). — SCHULTZ:  Denkmaler 
der  Kunst  des  Mittelalters  in  Unteritalien  (Dresden,  n.  d.). — 
G.  E.  STREET:  Brick  and  Marble  Architecture  in  the  Middle 
Ages  in  N.  Italy  (London,  1874). — WARING:  The  Arts  Con- 
nected with  Architecture  in  Central  Italy  (London,  1858). 


S92 


LIST  OF  PLATES 


.     SAVAGE  ORNAMENT:     POLYNESIAN 

1.  Carved  Window-Head,  New  Zealand   (after  Pho.  in  A.  M. 

N.  H.). 

2.  Detail,  New  Zealand  Paddle-Handle  (after  O.  J.)- 

3.  Detail,  New  Zealand  Canoe  (after  Racinet). 
4,  5.   Hawaiian  Stamped  Cloth  (after  O.  J.). 

6.  Detail,  New  Zealand  Paddle-Handle   (after  O.  J.). 

7.  Tattooed  Mummy-Head,  New  Zealand  (after  O.  J.). 

8.  Samoan  Grass  Cloth,  String  Decoration  (A.  M.  N.  H.). 

9.  New  Zealand  Grass  Cloth  (A.  M.  N.  H.). 

10.  New  Zealand  Club  (Racinet). 

11.  Scratched  Pattern  on  a  Tongan  Club,  New  Guinea   (after 

A.  C.  H.)- 

12.  Hawaiian  Stamped  Cloth  (after  O.  J.). 

13.  New  Zealand  Club  (after  Glazier). 

li.   From  a  New  Guinea  Spatula  (after  A.  C.  H.). 

15.  Detail,   Handle  of  New  Zealand  Paddle  of  21;  Faces  and 

Figures. 

16.  New  Zealand  Club  (A.  M.  N.  H.). 

17.  Frigate-Bird  Ornament,  New  Guinea  (after  A.  C.  H.). 

18.  Frigate-Bird  Scrolls.     New  Guinea  (after  A.  C.  H.). 

19.  Samoan  Fan  (A.  M.  N.  H.). 

20.  New  Zealand  Stamped  Cloth  (after  O.  J.). 

21.  Blade  of  New  Zealand  Ceremonial  Paddle  (after  O.  J.). 

22.  Scratched  Ornament  on  Pipe,  New  Guinea  (after  A.  C.  H.). 

23.  Carving  from  New  Zealand  Canoe   (Racinet). 

24.  Painted  Eaves  Boards,  New  Zealand  (after  Pho.  in  A.  M. 

N.  H.). 


II.     SAVAGE  ORNAMENT:     AMERICAN 

1.  Bolivian  Cloth. 

2.  From    Temple    of    Uxmal,    Mexico    (Racinet). 

3.  Mexican  Terra-Cotta  Head. 

4.  Indian   Basketry    Patterns. 

5.  Ancient   Mexican   Pottery   Border. 

6.  Bolivian  Hanging  Jar. 

7.  Sculptured   Stele  or  Pillar,  Uxmal. 

8.  Mexican   Jar   with    Spiral. 

9.  Mexican  Serpent  Jar. 

10.  Neck  of  Mexican  Jar:  Pseudo-Anthemions. 

11.  Mexican   Bowl;    Spirals   and  Zigzags. 

12.  Washoe  Basket   (after  print  in  Yale  News). 

13.  Mexican  Duck  Jar. 

14.  Peruvian  Gold  Disk. 

15.  Mexican  Platter  with  Grotesque. 

16.  Peruvian  Platter  with  Snake  Ornaments. 

17.  Carving  from  a  Mexican  "Throwing  Stick." 

18.  Peruvian  Cloth,  Toucan  Pattern. 

19.  Mexican  Pipe-Bowl,  Carved  Stone. 

20.  Prow  of  Alaskan  War  Canoe. 

21.  Stern   of  Alaskan   War   Canoe. 


All  the  above,  except  2  and  12,  are  original  sketches  from  ob- 
jects in  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  New  York;  19 
by  Miss  G.  K.  Hamlin;  the  rest  by  the  author. 


'exuan(Wood)      '  Urn-Cloth 


III.     EGYPTIAN  ORNAMENT 

1-5.   Painted  Lotus  Borders  from  Tombs  (chiefly  after  P.  d'A.). 
6-8.  All-Over  Patterns  from  Tomb  Ceilings   (after  P.  d'A.  and 

P.  &  C.). 
9.  Hathoric  Capital  and  Entablature,  Temple  of  Nectanebo, 

Philse   (after  P.  &  C.). 

10.  Column,  Campaniform  Type. 

11.  Lotus-Bundle   Column,   Temple  of  Thothmes   III,   Karnak 

(after   P.   &   C.). 
12-11.  All-over   Patterns   from   Tomb  Ceilings    (after  Meyer  and 

P.  d'A.). 

15.   Floral  Capital,  Ptolemaic,  from  Philae  (after  P.  d'A.). 
16,18.  Circle  All-over  Patterns   (after  P.  d'A.). 
17.  Palm  Capital,  Temple  of  Edfu  (after  O.  J.). 

19.  Lobed  Lotus  Capital  from  the  Tbeban  Oasis   (after  O.  J.). 

20.  Vulture  with  Plumes  of  Royalty;  from  Ceiling  of  a  Hypo- 

style  Hall  (after  P.  d'A.). 
21,22.   Imbri  Patterns   (after  Dolmetsch). 

23.  Vulture  or  Hawk  in  Gold  and  Enamel  (P.  &  C.). 

24.  Enamel  Rosette  for  Inlay  (in  Metropolitan  Museum). 

25.  Carved  Perfume-Spoon  of  Wood  (Meyer). 

26.  Scarabaeus  or  Beetle. 


H!A     EGYPTIAN  ORNAMENT 

1.  Various  Lotus  and  Other  Borders  from  Tombs  (chiefly  after 

Prisse  d'Avennes  and  Dolmetsch). 

2.  Campaniform  Column,  from  Ramesseum. 

3.  Lotus-Bud  Clustered  Column,  Luxor. 

4.  All-Over    Patterns    Painted    in    Tombs    (after    Dolmetsch, 

Prisse  d'Avennes  and  Perrot  and  Chipiez). 

5.  Ptolemaic  Capitals,  Hathoric  and  Floral  from  Philae  (after 

Prisse  d'Avennes  and  Owen  Jones). 

6.  Ptolemaic  Capitals,  Lotus  and  Palm,  from  Theban  Oasis  and 

Edfu  (as  above). 

7.  Feathers  as  Insignia  (after  Owen  Jones). 
8,9.   Imbrications  (Dolmetsch). 

10.  Floral  Ornaments  (after  C.  H.  Walker). 

11.  Furniture,  in  part  from  Tomb  Paintings  (after  Meyer). 

12.  Wooden    Shrine    (Dolmetsch). 

13.  Detail  from  Facade  of  Tomb  (after  Perrot  and  Chipiez). 

14.  Utensils  and  Jewelrv. 


Illustrations   not   otherwise   designated  are   from   original   draw- 
ings by  the  author. 


41 


IV.  ASSYRIAN  AND  PERSIAN  ORNAMENT 

1.  Assyrian  Double  Palmette  Border,  Tiles   (after  P.  &  C.). 

2.  Assyrian  "Sacred  Tree"   (after  O.  J.). 

3.  Imbrications  or  Scales:  a,  Painted;  b,  Carved  (after  O.  J.). 

4.  Pavefent  Slab,  Koyunjik. 

5.  Pomegranate  Border,  Nimrond  (after  O.  J.). 

6.  Assyrian  Chair,  from  a  Relief  (P.  &  C.). 

7.  Assyrian  "Portal  Guardian"  Winged  Bull,  from  Khorsabad 

(P.  &  C.). 

8.  Lotus  Rosette  from  a  Pavement,  Koyunjik  (after  O.  J.). 

9.  Column  from  Susa  (after  P.  &  C.). 

10.  Column  from  Persepolis  (after  P.  &  C.). 

11.  Lycian  Tomb  (P.  &  C.). 

12.  Detail  from  Persepolis:  Palms  and  Rosettes  (after  P.  &  C.). 

13.  Details  from  Staircase  Parapet  (after  Ward). 

14.  Palmette  Tiles  from  Susa  (after  P.  &  C.). 

15.  Enameled  Brick  Wall-Facing  from  Susa  (after  P.  &  C.). 
16,  17.  Details  from  Rock  Tomb,  Naksh-i-Rustam. 

18.  Detail,  Architrave,  from  Persepolis. 


/2  From  Hsnepolia 
1 5. Susa:  Brick  Wall. 


V.     GREEK  ORNAMENT,  PAINTED:     CHIEFLY  ON  POT- 
TERY 

1.  Anthemions,  Black  on  Red. 

2.  Dish,  Geometric  or  Dipylon  Period  (P.  &  C.). 
3,  7.  Palmettes,  Black  and  Brown  on  Red. 

4.  Framed  Anthemions   Red  on  Black. 

5.  Palmette  or  Framed  Anthemion  and  "Lotus"  Motive:  Black 

and  Brown  on  Red. 

6.  Hydria,   Early   Fifth   Century    (Art   Pour   Tous). 

8.  Oblique  Anthemions,  Black  on  Red. 

9.  Anthemions   and   Fruits. 

10.  Double  Palmette-and-Lotus  Band:  Red  on  Black. 

11.  Anthemion  Pattern,  from  an  Apulian  Vase  in  Xew  York. 
12,  13.  Vine  Bands,  Red  on  Black. 

14.  Ivy  Band,  Black  on  Red. 
15,  16.   Small  Vertical  Laurel  and  Ivy  Bands. 

17.  Painted  Terra  Cotta  Antefix  (incorrectly  labeled  as  of  Mar- 
ble), Athens. 

18.  Hydria,  Fine  Period. 

19.  Painted  Marble  Antefix. 

20.  Framed    Anthemions,    Red    on    Black. 

21.  Foliated   Scroll  or  Rinceau,  on  a  Late  Apulian  Vase. 

22.  Anthemions,  Black  on  Red. 

23.  Vertical  Vine  Band. 


The  above  illustrations  are  from  various  sources:     Owen  Jones, 
Kachel,  Art  Pour  Tous,  Lau,  and  original  sketches  from  the  object. 


ff&lmette  -Stack  and  brown  onffed 


S.Fblmetteeic.  -Black  and  Brown  on  Red. 


8  OMiaueflnlhemions-dlacKonRed. 


VI.     GREEK    ORNAMENT,    PAINTED:     POTTERY    AND 
ARCHITECTURE 

1,2,3.  "Vitruvian"  Waves  and  Scrolls. 
4,  5,  9,  10.  Various  Fret  or  Meander  Bands. 
6,  11.  Anthemions,  Red  on  Black. 

7.  Imbrications. 

8.  Flower  Band  (Lotuses?). 
12.  Lotus-Bud  Band. 

13,  14.  Plant   and   Vine   Ornaments. 

15.  Egg-and-Dart  and  Laurel  Band. 

16,  18, 19,  22.  Anthemions  and  Palmettes,  Black  on  Red. 
17,20,21,23,30.  Anthemion   Bands,  Red  on  Black. 

24,  27.  Large  Anthemion  Ornaments,  Black  on  Red. 

25,  26.  Late  Painted  Decorations,  Apulian. 

28,31,36.   Painted  Guilloches  on  Terra-Cotta  Strips  and  Moldings. 
29,  32-35.  Polychrome  Decorations  of  Architectural  Members. 


Nos.  1,  2,  3,  20,  23,  25  are  from  drawings  by  the  author  after 
Owen  Jones  and  Kachel;  28,  30,  36  from  drawings  by  the  late 
Prof.  M.  K.  Kress  of  Columbia  University;  32  is  from  Perrot  and 
Chipiez;  the  rest  from  the  late  Prof.  W.  R.  Ware's  "Greek  Or- 
nament." 


IFLAT 


VII.     GREEK  ORNAMENT,  ARCHITECTURAL 

1.  Carved  Pediment  Rinceau,  from  one  of  the  "Sidon"   Sar- 

cophagi at  Constantinople. 

2.  Marble  Antefix,  supposedly  from  the  Parthenon. 

3.  Carved  Finial  of  Choragic  Monument  of  Lysicrates,  Athens: 

Restored. 

4.  Typical  Carved  Lotiform  Motive,  from  the  Erechtheion. 

5.  Carved  Anthemion  on  an  Ionic  Cymatium. 

6.  Doric  Order  of  the  Parthenon. 

7.  Ionic  Capital  from  the  Erechtheion. 

8.  Moldings   from   the   Erechtheion :     Water  Leaf,   Bead-and- 

Reel,  and  Egg-and-Dart. 

9.  Ionic  Order  of  the  Erechtheion. 

10.  Capital  from  Eleusis  (after  Meyer). 

11.  Anta-Cap  from  the  Erechtheion  (Meyer). 

12.  Greek  Corinthian  Volutes. 

13,15.  Stele  Heads  from  Athens,  Fourth  Century. 

14.  Corinthian  Capital  from  the  Choragic  Monument  of  Lysic- 
rates :     Restored. 


All  the  figures  on  this  Plate  are  from  original  drawings  by  the 
author  except  8  and  1 1  which  are  taken  by  permission  from  Meyer's 
"Handbook  of  Ornament";  and  5,  from  an  unidentified  source. 


PLATE  YE GREEK  ORNAMENT 


I 'Carved  Rinceau. 


'Sidori 'Sarcophagus 


SFragmentofaCymalium        W^ 


15. 5tele-HeadMero  ^Century 


ChoragicMon-.  of  Lysccrates     JS Stele  -Head  flthens, ^Century 


VIII.     ROMAN  ORNAMENT,  THE  ORDERS 

1.  Doric  Order,  Thermae  (Baths)  of  Diocletian. 

2.  Composite  Order  from  the  Arch  of  Titus. 

3.  Ionic  Order  from  the  Temple  of  Fortuna  Virilis. 

4.  Corinthian  Order,  Temple  of  Castor  and  Pollux. 

5.  Middle  Band  of  Architrave,  Temple  of  Castor  and  Pollux. 

6.  Greco-Roman  Corinthian  Order  of  Temple  of  "Vesta"  (so- 

called)  at  Tivoli. 

7.  Composite  Capital,  Thermae  of  Caracalla. 

8.  Unidentified    Corinthian   Pilaster   Capital;    Late   Greek   or 

Greco-Roman. 

9.  Enriched  Attic  Base  in  Capitoline  Museum  (after  Meyer). 

10.  Enriched    Corinthian    Base    in    Baptistery    of    Constantine 

(after  Meyer). 

11.  Enriched  Corinthian  Base  from  Temple  of  Concord  (Meyer). 


All  the  figures  on  this  Plate  are  from  original  drawings  by  the 
author,  based  on  various  authorities  (7  is  after  a  photograph),  ex- 
cept 12  which  is  taken  directly  from  Meyer's  "Handbook  of  Orna- 
ment." 


SnMMnaMOMMOMlL^VLmOMK^^ 

FX  ^~^7£^-~^^c2-fJfJK^^1^^f^P/f^ I*" 


2  Order  of  the.  ftrcJi  of  Titus  :Compasite 


S-MxldkExind  of  flrchitrme;  Temple  of(astorand  fbllux 


IX.     ROMAN  ORNAMENT,  CARVING 

1.  Taenia  Molding,  Arch  of  the  Silversmiths. 

2,  3.  Moldings  between  Architrave  Bands,  Temple  of  Vespasian 
(from  Photographs  of  French  Restorations). 

4.  Semicircular  Panel  in  Court  of  Mattei  Palace,  Rome,  with 

Rinceaux    and    Rosettes;    its    source   is    unknown    (after 
Vulliamy). 

5.  Detail  from  Border  of  a  Silver  Platter  (after  Kachel). 

6.  Rinceau,  from  Temple  of  Vespasian. 

7.  Bucrane,  from  an  Altar  (after  Tatham). 

8.  Fragments  from  Forum  of  Trajan  in  Lateran  Museum  (after 

a  Photograph). 
9,  10.   Details  from  so-called  "Florentine  Tablet"   (after  Kachel). 

11.  Enriched  Ove,  Temple  of  Vespasian  (after  an  old  French 

Lithograph). 

12.  Pilaster  Fragment  in  Villa  Medici,  Rome  (from  Cast  in  Co- 

lumbia University). 

13.  Oak-Leaf   and    Rosette    Band    (Unidentified;    after   an   old 

French  Lithograph). 

14.  Pilaster  Fragment  with  Double  Rinceau,  in  Palazzo  Fano, 

Rome. 


All   the    above    illustrations    are    from    drawings   by   the    author. 
The  sources  of  6  and  14  cannot  be  verified. 


4? 


ROMAM  ORNAMENT:  CARVING 


Detail  from  border 
of  a  Silver  Platter 


4.  RmdunknwnSource.  m  Court  of  Mattel  fbbce.  Rome  [Marble) 


10  fl  &rt  rf  the'noicnceTdUeL.nthe  IJfizi 
celabld. 


12  Pilaster  Fragment  mVlUa,  Media        73  Oak  Leaf  and  RosetteBand 


.]"  H  Pilaster  Fragment  in  fol  rtono. 
(Double  Rinceau  lype-cpvUh  12) 


X.     ROMAN  ORNAMENT,  MINOR  ARTS 

1.  Cinerary  Urn  in  British  Museum  (after  Glazier). 

2.  Silver  Crater  from  Hildesheim  (Meyer,  after  Kachel). 

3.  Silver  Patera  from  Hildesheim  (after  Kachel). 

4.  Marble   Hydria   from   Pompeii    (after   Photograph). 

5.  Bronze  Saucepan,  Naples  Museum  (Meyer). 

6.  Cinerary  Chest  and  Urn  in  Vatican  Museum  (after  Piranesi). 

7.  Bronze-Tripod  in  Berlin  Museum  (after  Meyer). 

8.  Marble  Support  or  Stand  in  Villa  Borghese,  Rome   (aftev 

Piranesi). 

9.  Bronze  Tripod,  Naples  Museum  (after  Meyer). 

10.  Candelabrum   on   Triangular   Pedestal   in   Vatican   Museun.' 

(after  Piranesi). 
11,  12.  Marble  Table  Legs,  Vatican  Museum  (after  Meyer). 

13.  Bronze  Candelabrum  Base,  Naples  Museum  (after  engrav- 
ing in  "The  Workshop"). 


All  the  illustrations  on  this  Plate  are  from  the  author's  drawings, 
based  on  the  sources  indicated. 


48 


XI.     POMPEII  AN  ORNAMENT 

1.  Detail   from   Temple   of   Isis    (R.   Paufve   after  Zahn). 

2.  From  a  Painted  Wall  in  Naples  Museum  (R.  Paufve,  after 

Niccolini). 

3.  From  House  of  Marcus  Lucretius    (H.  W.   Haefele,  after 

Niccolini). 

4.  Painted   Border    (R.   Paufve,   after  Zahn). 

5.  From  House  of  the  Vestals  (Author,  after  Zahn). 

6.  Frieze  in  Temple  of  Isis  (Author,  after  Zahn). 

7.  Fragment    of    Stucco    Relief    from    Excavation    Near   Villa 

Farnesina,  Rome   (Author,  after  Photograph). 

8.  From  a  Wall  not  now  Extant,  in  Pompeii  (H.  W.  Haefele, 

after  Niccolini). 

9.  Detail    of    Pompeiian    Floor    Mosaic     (R.    Paufve,    after 

Zahn?). 

10.  Figure  in  Stucco  Relief,  from  Excavation  Near  Villa  Farne- 
sina, Rome   (Author,  after  Photograph). 
11,12.  Details  from  Pompeiian  Floor  Mosaics   (H.  W.  Haefele). 


FloorMosa/c, 


10 Stucco  (Rome).          te-Mosaic  Border 


XII.     BYZANTINE  ORNAMENT,  CARVED 

1.  Capital,  Impost,  Mosaic  and  Marble  Paneling,  Hagia  Sophia, 

Constantinople. 

2.  Spandrel  with  Surface   Carving  in  Marble,  Hagia   Sophia, 

Constantinople. 

3.  "Basket"  Capital  and  Impost  Block,  San  Vitale,  Ravenna. 

4.  Pier   and   Cap   in    Front   of   St.    Mark's,   Venice,    from   St. 

John  of  Acre. 

5.  Inlaid   Capital   and   Impost   Block,   St.    Mark's,   Venice. 

6, 7.   Details    from   Bronze   Doors   of  the   Vlth   Century,   Hagia 
Sophia,  Constantinople. 

8.  Italo-Byzantine  Silver  Chest  in  Museo  Nazionale,  Florence. 

9.  Puteal  (Perforated  Parapet),  San  Vitale,  Ravenna. 

10.  Panel   from   Crypt  of  St.   Mark's,  Venice;  Xth  Century. 


All  the  above  illustrations  are  from  photographs  or  photo-prints. 


5( 


2 Spandrel.  tfag'ia.5ophia. 


1  Capital. Ftinels  and  Mosaic, 

i  __^^^rffc. 


5 Inlaid  Cap,  5t  Mark's.  Venice. 


P£e 

-/ 

In  ffbnt  qfSt  Marfc,  Venice 


* 

-\  ^^«>4^ 


8 Silver C/Jest.  Florence,.  9 Openwork  fbnel.SMtale, 


XIII.     BYZANTINE  ORNAMENT,  MOSAIC 

1.  Mosaic  Detail,  Hagia  Sophia,  Constantinople. 

2.  Spandrel   and   Capital,   Gallery   Arcade   of   Hagia   Sophia, 

Constantinople. 
3,  4.  Details  of  Mosaic  from  Hagia  Sophia,  Constantinople. 

5.  Detail  of  Mosaic  in  St.  George,  Salonika. 

6,7,8,10.  Details  of  Mosaic  from  Hagia  Sophia,  Constantinople. 
9,11,14.  Mosaic  Details  from  San  Lorenzo  fuori  le  Mura,  Rome. 
12,  13.  Details  of  Floor  Mosaic  in  San  Marco,  Rome. 


Of  the  above  illustrations  Nos.  1,  2,  6-10  are  from  student- 
drawings  by  S.  Y.  Ohta,  after  Prang  and  Salzenberg;  11  and  14 
from  student-drawings  by  H.  J.  Burke;  3,  4,  5  and  6  are  repro- 
duced by  permission  from  Prang's  Plates  of  Historic  Ornament;  12 
and  13  are  from  measured  drawings  by  the  author. 


51 


14-3.  Lorenzo  fuart.  Rome 


XIV.     ROMANESQUE  OKNAMENT,  FRENCH 

1.   Double  Capital  from  La  Dalbade,  Toulouse,  in  the  Toulouse 

Museum. 
2.^  Double   Capital   from   Church  of  Notre   Dame  at  Chalons- 

sur-Marne. 
3,  5.  Details  from  Central  Portal  of  Church  of  St.  Gilles,  near 

Aries. 
4.   Capital  from  Church  of  St.  Pierre-le-Moutier. 

6.  Carved  Rosette,  from  Portal  of  Church  at  Moissac. 

7.  Carved  Tympanum  from  a  House  at  Reims. 

8.  Rosette  (unidentified). 

9.  Detail   from   Porte   Ste.   Anne,   Cathedral   of   Notre   Dame, 

Paris. 

10.  Fragment   of   P'rieze   from  Portal  of  Church  of  St.  Gilles, 

near  Aries. 

11.  Carved  Monster  from  Portal  of  Church  at  Moissac. 


All  the  illustrations  on  this  Plate  are  reproduced  from  photo- 
graphic post  cards  of  casts  in  the  Museum  of  Comparative  Sculpture 
of  the  Trocadero,  Paris. 


!  Double  Cap'dai  La  Dalbade.  Tbuloux.dnloulouseSluxum)         2DoubteCapilal,  Notre  Dame  de  Chalons  jurrfome. 


4  Capital  from  St.Pierre-le-J1outier.        5.  Porch  of5t.Gilles  (Arle$. 


6  Rosette,  Mo&sac . 


7  Tympanum  fmmaHousen  Reims. 


9  ^/7«;  fyte&JIme.  ND  Kins 


10.  Fragment.  Frieze ,  Fbrch  qjSt.  Gill es>( Aries) 


}]  Monster.Sb/s-wc. 


XV.       ANGLO-NORMAN  AND   CELTIC   ORNAMENT 

1.  Voluted    Capitals    from    Harmston    Church,    Lines     (after 

Bond). 

2.  Grotesque    and    Scrolls,    Shobdon    Church,    Herefordshire 

(after  Rickraan). 

3.  "Scalloped"-Type  Capitals,  New  Shoreham  Church   (after 

Bond). 

4.  Anglo-Norman  Anthemion  Ornament   (unidentified). 

5.  Capital,  Canterbury  Cathedral   (after  Rickman). 

6.  Peterboro  Choir,  Two  Bays  (illustration  by  Author  in  Van 

Rensselaer,   "English   Cathedrals"). 

7.  Zigzag    Arch-Ornament    from    Malmesbury    Abbey     (after 

Parker). 

8.  Star-Flower  on  an  Arch  in  Romsey  Abbey  (after  Rickman). 

9.  Anglo-Norman  Cushion  Capital  (unidentified;  C.  U.  Student- 

Drawing). 

10.  Billet    or    Checker    Molding    from    Winchester    Cathedral 

(after  Parker). 

11.  Anthemion  Ornament  from  Hereford  Cathedral. 

12.  Initial  P,  from  Book  of  Kells  (after  Sullivan). 

13.  Detail    from    Celtic    Cross    at    Ruthwell,    Ireland    (after 

Champreys). 

14.  Interlace  from  Cross  at  Mugle,  Ireland. 

15.  Interlace  Border  from  an  Irish  MS.  (after  Racinet). 

16.  The  South  Cross  at  Aheny,  Ireland  (after  Champreys). 


All  the  above  illustrations   are   from  the  author's  drawings  ex- 
cept 9,  which  is  an  unidentified  student's  drawing. 


i  Caps  Vo/uted 


2  Shobdon .  Herefordshire  -    3 .  Caps.  Scalloped 


12.  Initial  (F)  //aw  Boo*  of 'Kelts' 


XVI.     GERMAN  ROMANESQUE  ORNAMENT 

1.  Carved  Pier  in  Church  at  St.  Jak,  Hungary  (from  a  draw- 

ing by   Stein). 

2.  Twelfth  Century  Capital  from  Cathedral  at  Naumburg  (C. 

U.  Student-drawing). 

3.  Twelfth  Century   Capital  from  Gelnhausen   (from   Hauser, 

"Stillehre  .   .   .  des   Mittelalters"). 

4.  Double  Capital,  Minster  at  Limburg-on-the-Lahn   (Hauser, 

"Stillehre"). 

5.  Detail  of  Bronze  Ornament,  Aachen. 

6.  Rosette   from   Heiligenberg  near   Vienna    (Meyer's  "Hand- 

book" etc.)   Gelnhausen. 

7.  German  Romanesque  Capital  (from  an  unidentified  engrav- 

ing). 

8.  Twelfth  Century  Bronze  Knocker  (Meyer). 
1).   Rosette  from  Cathedral  of  Bale   (Meyer). 

]().  Anthemion  Band  from  Church  at  Hersfeld,  Saxony. 

11.  Acanthus    Molding    from    Miinzenberg,    Hesse    ("Gewerbe- 

halle"). 

112.  Anthemion  Band  from  Fulda,  Hesse-Cassel   (after  Prang). 
13.  Romanesque    Stained    Glass    from    Heiligenkreuz    (Hauser, 

"Stillehre"). 

Ik  Carved    Band    from    Liebfrauenkirche,    Halberstadt    (after 
"Klingenberg,  Mittelalterliche  Ornamentik"). 

15.  Anthemion  Frieze  from  South  Germany   (after  Prang). 

16.  Carving  from  Tomb  in  St.  Thomas',  Strassburg. 

17.  Carved    Band   from   Anhausen-an-dem-Brienz,   S.    Germany 

("Gewerbehalle"). 


Illustrations  not  otherwise  attributed  are  from  drawings  by  the 
author. 


PLATE  3TML 


O.  Capital. Ml  (esitury 


\.Church  at  Jaktiungay 


AT.  UehfiauenlriKhe.  Halberytadt 

IRfS 


/3.  Glass.  HeilLgenKrtuz 


ISfrieiz. South  Gemvry  ft.  fiomaTomb.StlfomaiOxjrch.     17  From  South  Germany. 


XVII.    GOTHIC  STRUCTURAL  ORNAMENT 

1.  Buttress  Pinnacle  from  Notre  Dame  (Hauser). 

2.  Flying  Arches,  Sta.  Barbara,  Kuttenberg  (Hauser). 

3.  Decorative  Gable,  Cologne  Cathedral;  Middle  Period  Tra- 

cery  (Hauser). 

4.  Crocket  from  St.  Urbain,  Troyes  (Hauser). 

5.  Buttress  Pinnacle,  Notre  Dame,  Paris  (C.  U.  Student  Draw- 

ing). 

6.  Early  French  Finial. 

7.  French  Gothic  Vault  Rib  (Hauser). 

8.  English  Pier  Arch  Moldings  (Hauser). 

9.  Late  Gothic  Crocket,  Rouen  (Hauser). 

10.  Wall  Traceries,  Transept  of  Meaux  Cathedral  (C.  U.  Stu- 

dent Drawing). 

11.  Finial  Cathedral  of  Troyes  (Hauser). 

12.  Half-Plan    and    Elevation,    Clustered   Pier,    Notre    Dame, 

Paris  (C.  U.  Student  Drawing). 

13.  Pier  Cap  and  Arch  Moldings,  Chartres  Cathedral  (Hauser). 

14.  Early  Gothic   or   Transitional   Balustrade    (C.   U.   Student 

Drawing). 

15.  Detail  from  Transept  of  Notre  Dame,  Paris   (C.  U.  Stu- 

dent Drawing,  after  Lassus  and  V.-le-Duc). 

16.  Flamboyant   Balustrade,   Chateau  of  Josselyn   (C.   U.   Stu- 

dent Drawing). 

17.  Early  Gothic  Balustrade,  Notre  Dame,  Paris   (C.  U.  Stu- 

dent Drawing). 


PLATE 


oo 

GOTHIC  ORNAMEMT.     STRUCTURAL 


/f  Balusliade.Tronsitional Detail  from  5  Transept.  Notre  Datm.fbrb  17 f&rly  Gothic  Balu5tia(fe>. 


XVIII.     GOTHIC  ORNAMENT,  CARVING 

1.  Capitals,  North  Porch  of  Chartres  Cathedral;  XII Ith  Cen- 

tury. 

2.  Capitals,  Northwest  Portal,  Laon  Cathedral;  Early  Xlllth 

Century. 

3.  Early  French  Gothic  Capital. 

4.  Pedestal,   North   Porch,   Chartres   Cathedral. 

5.  From  St.  Urbain,  Troyes. 

6.  Arch  Ornament,  North  Portal,  Bourges  Cathedral. 

7.  Nave  Piers,  Reims  Cathedral. 

8.  Bishop's  Throne,  Toul  Cathedral,  Early  Xlllth  Century. 

9.  Transept  Rose  (as  before  Alteration),  Reims  Cathedral. 

10.  The  "Beau  Dieu,"  Reims  Cathedral. 

11.  Vault-Boss,  from  an  Apsidal  Chapel,  Seez  Cathedral. 

12.  Model  of  Apse  of  St.  Urbain,  Troyes;  in  Trocaderp  Mu- 

seum. 
13,  Ik  Corbel  and  Crocket,  Rouen:  Flamboyant. 

15.  Vine  Molding,  Window  of  St.  Urbain,  Troyes,  XlVth  Cen- 

tury. 

16.  "Bahut"   in   Cluny   Museum,   XVth   Century. 

17.  Cast-Iron   Knocker,   from   House  in   Rue  du   Lion,   Troyes 

(XVth  Century). 

18.  Molding,  Porch  of  Troyes  Cathedral  (XVth  Century). 

19.  Fragment,   Hotel  de  la   Tremoille,  in   Court  of  Ecole  des 

Beaux-Arts. 


All  the  above  illustrations  are  from  photo-print  post-cards  of  casts 
in  the  Museum  of  Comparative  Sculpture  in  the  Trocadero,  Paris. 


/  Caps  N.  Porcti.  Chartrc 


2.  Capitab  NW  Fbrtul.  Loon  Cathedra 


.3  Earfy  Capital  StJxttf) 


'•     ^j^^|    &£>bbopsThrone  .Tout 'Cathedral 
,  Reins 


9  Transept  Rose,  l&ims  Gu 


K  MaCtloJ/ipse.  St.  Urban,  Trcyes 


16  'Bu/iut  (fjaenstyQKJt,  tii 


XIX.     GOTHIC  ORNAMENT,  STAINED  GLASS 

1.  Border,  Window  in  Bourges  Cathedral  (Prang). 

2.  Border,    Jesse    Window    in    Chartres    Cathedral    (H.    W. 

Miller). 
3,4.  Figures  from  Chartres  Jesse  Window  (H.  W.  Miller). 

5.  Border,  Window  in  Bourges  Cathedral  (Author,  after  Owen 

Jones). 

6.  Grisaille,  Window  in  Bourges  Cathedral  (Owen  Jones). 

7.  Border,  WTindow  in  Bourges  Cathedral  (Owen  Jones). 

8.  Border,  Window  in  York  Cathedral  (Owen  Jones). 

9.  Border   from   Window   in   Church   of  St.   Thomas,   Strass- 

burg  (Author,  after  Owen  Jones). 
10.  Window  Detail  from  St.  Denis  (Prang). 


o  < 


I  Border. £>ourgej  Gath 


2  Border,  Jesse  wnao*/.  C/TartnssGjfo ,  End  of- M*  Century 


3  and 4  Figures  from  Jesse  Window,  Chartrcs  Cathedral. 


6  Grtsaille.  Bourses  Cbml.      7  Dourcje. 


.5 ' B>order.Dourge5      9  51  Thomas  Church.  Strassburg 


XX.     GOTHIC   ORNAMENT;   PAINTED,   CERAMIC   AND 
MSS.  DECORATION 

1.  Painted  Molding,  Ely  Cathedral. 

2.  Painted  Enriched  Molding,  Beverley  Cathedral. 
3, 4.   Painted   Decorations   from   Brunswick  Cathedral. 

5.  Painted  Decoration  from  Reims  Cathedral. 

6.  Painted  Decoration,  Salisbury  Cathedral. 

7.  Painted    Decoration,    Winchester    Cathedral. 
8,12.  Tile  Units  from  French  Churches. 

9.  Painted  Decoration  from  Church  of  the  Jacobins,  Toulouse. 

10.  Painted  Decoration  from  Ranworth  Church,  Norfolk. 

11.  From  West  Walton  Church,  Norfolk. 
13.  French  Tiling,  Xlllth  Century. 

14,16,17,19-24.  Ornaments   from   Manuscripts  of  the  Xllth  and 

Xlllth  Centuries. 
15,  18.   Borders  from   Manuscripts  of  XlVth  and  XVth  Centuries. 


Of  the  above  illustrations,  Nos.  1  to  7  inclusive  and  9,  10,  11  are 
from  Prang's  "Plates  of  Historic  Ornament,"  by  permission,  Nos. 
8  and  12  to  24  inclusive  are  from  Owen  Jones,  "Grammar  of  Orna- 
ment." 


58 


3 


m 

Q,  TILE   UNIT 


IO.  RANWORTH  CH-,  Norfolk .  1 1  WtST  VA1.7DN  CHV  NorfolK , 


HO  27.  2£- 

/!0       /Vb  Is.  A?  /D  24indU3ivf  one  from  Manuscripts:  ffafld  IQ  are 
the  others  are  o/ JheAI/¥!as?dJ(/ll-  Cesitur/e.5- _^ 


24. 


XXI.     ENGLISH  GOTHIC  ORNAMENT 

1.  One  Bay,  Salisbury   Cathedral. 

2.  One  Bay,  Choir  of  Lincoln  Cathedral. 

3.  One  Bay,  Lichfield  Cathedral,  Nave. 

4.  Detail  from  King's  College  Chapel,  Cambridge. 

5.  Perpendicular  Wall  Tracery. 

6.  Lancet  Windows,  Warmington   Church. 

7.  Plate  Tracery,  Carlisle   Cathedral. 

8.  Geometric  Tracery,  Rippington  Church. 

9.  Geometric  Tracery,  Chapter  House,  York  Cathedral. 

10.  Curvilinear  Tracery,  St.  Michael's,  Warfield. 

11.  Perpendicular  Tracery,  Beauchamp  Chapel,  Warwick. 

12.  Curvilinear  Tracery,  Oxford  Cathedral. 

13.  Transept  Rose,  Westminster  Abbey. 

14.  Capital  from  Lincoln  Cathedral:  Early  English. 

15.  Capital  from  Beverley  Cathedral:  Decorated. 

16.  Cresting  Ornament,  Arundel  Church:  Perpendicular. 

17.  "Decorated"  Finial. 

18.  "Decorated"  Crocket. 

19.  "Decorated"    Capital,   Beverley   Cathedral. 

20.  Carving  from  Trull  Church. 

21.  One  unit  of  a   Diaper   Decoration. 

22.  A  "Perpendicular"  Doorway  and  Door  Paneling. 


Nos.  1,  2,  and  3  are  reproduced  by  permission  from  the  Au- 
thor's drawings  in  Van  Rensselaer's  "English  Cathedrals"  (The 
Century  Co.).  No.  4  is  from  part  of  an  illustration  in  Simpson's 
"A  History  of  Architectural  Development"  (Longmans);  5  is  from 
Speltz,  by  permission;  6-11  are  by  the  author;  12-15  are  from 
Gwilt's  "Encyclopedia";  17,  18  by  the  author  after  Speltz;  20-22  are 
from  drawings  by  Columbia  students,  from  unidentified  sources. 


'Decorated' Fmiat       Oak  leaf  packet        # 


XXII.     ITALIAN  GOTHIC  ORNAMENT 

1.  Detail,  Portal  of  Cathedral  of  Messina. 

2.  Open  Tracery,  Venetian  Style. 

3.  Central  Doorway,  Cathedral  of  Messina. 

4.  Traceried  Window,  from  a  Town  Hall. 

5.  Twisted  Columns,  from  Niche  in  Fa9ade  of  Church  of  Or 

San  Michele,  Florence. 

6.  Detail  from  Upper  Story  of  Campanile,  Florence. 

7.  Porch  of  Cathedral  of  Amalfi. 

8.  Gothic   Detail  in  Terra-Cotta,   Bologna. 

9.  Capital,  Lower  Arcade  of  Doge's  Palace,  Venice. 


All  the  above  illustrations  are  from  photographs  or  photographic 
prints  except  9,  which  is  from  a  student's  drawing.  Nos.  1,  3  and 
7  are  from  photo  prints  published  in  the  magazine  Stone,  reproduced 
here  by  permission. 


4.  Wmaou  of  an  Italian  Ibwn  -Ha/I 


^Tv? — 
7.  Porch,  Cathedral  oJAma/fL 


8.Tem-cottaDetoil,E>ol<yna.  Q.Cap/tal, Doqesfblacz.Venice 


INDEX 


INDEX 


AACHEN,  Palatine  Chapel,  369 

Acanthus:  in  Byzantine  O.,  211, 
216;  in  French  Romanesque  O., 
252,  255;  in  Greek  O.,  98,  120;  in 
Italian  Gothic,  379;  in  Roman  O., 
152 

yEgean  Culture  and  art,  73  sq. 

Ahuri-Mazda,  70,  71 

Aizanoi,  115,  125 

Alaska,  21;  Totem  Poles,  22 

Alby,  Cathedral,  312,  370 

Alexandria,  158,  185 

Alexandrian  and  Apulian  Pottery, 
108 

Altenburg,  370 

American  Indians,  28 

Museum  of  Natural  His- 
tory, 28  note 
"          Ornament,  Primitive,  27 

Amiens  Cathedral,  363,  311,  338,  341, 

342,  374 
"        Triptych  in  Library,  338 

Angel  Choir,  Lincoln  Cath.,  311,  357 

Anglo-Norman:  Anthemions,  269; 
Arches,  Corbels,  Doorways,  Mold- 
ings, 267;  Carved  Ornament,  269; 
Fonts  and  Metal  Work,  270;  Or- 
nament in  General,  266;  Painted 
Decoration,  269 

Angouleme,  257 

Animal  Forms  in  Egyptian  O.,  44 

Animism  in  Primitive  O.,  21 

Anthemion  in  Anglo-Norman  O., 
269;  in  Byzantine  O.,  215,  216;  in 
French  Romanesque  O.,  269;  in 
German  O.,  274;  in  Greek  O.,  104, 
118,  119;  Greek  Types  of,  105;  in 
Roman  O.,  155 

Antioch,  Golden  Church  at,  232 


Applied  ornament  defined,  7 

Apollo  Temple,  Didyme,  114;  Phig- 
alaea  (Bassae),  120 

Apulian  pottery,  99,  100,  108,  244 

Ara  Coeli  (Santa  Maria  in),  Rome, 
200 

Arcatures,  255,  269 

Arch:  of  Constantine,  148;  of  Ha- 
drian at  Athens,  125;  of  Titus, 
136,  156 

Arches:  Anglo-Norman,  267;  French 
Romanesque,  258;  Gothic,  288 

Architectural  Ceramics:  Greek,  109; 
Etruscan,  130;  Pompeiian,  130 

Architectural  Motives  in  Greek  O.,  97 

Architectural  Ornament:  Defined,  7; 
Byzantine,  208;  Early  Christian, 
192;  Egyptian,  38,  49,  52;  Gothic 
in  General,  284;  Greek,  110;  Pom- 
peiian, 172;  Roman,  136;  Roman- 
esque, in  General,  251 

Aries,  307;  St.  Trophime  at,  262 

Armenia,  207,  221 ;  Ornament  of,  232 

Artemision  (Temple)  at  Ephesus, 
114 

Asia  Minor,  65,  66,  111,  112,  114,  116, 
140,  158,  163,  206 

Assisi,  384 

Assyrian:  Lotus,  58,  59;  Ornament, 
Origins  and  Methods  of,  57;  Sa- 
cred Tree,  36,  60,  84;  Stepped 
Parapet,  70;  Volutes,  60,  61 

Athens,  99,  115,  119,  121,  125 

Aulnay,  St.  Pierre  at,  261 

Auvergne,  251 

Avallon,  255 

Avila,  276 

B 

BAALBEK,  137 

Babylon,  57;  Gate  of  Ishtar  at,  64 


395 


INDEX 


Balawat  Gates,  64 

Bale  Cathedral,  311 

Balustrades,  Gothic,  296 

Bamberg,  227 

Baptistery:  Florence,  243;  of  S. 
Stefano  at  Bologna,  240 

Barcelona,  276 

Barfreston  Church,  269 

Bases:  Gothic,  287;  Greek,  114,  115; 
Roman,  142;  Romanesque,  251 

Basilican  Ornament,  187  sq. 

Basilicas,  Christian:  Sant'  Agnese, 
195;  San  Apollinare  at  Ravenna, 
198,  2-20,  223,  225;  Ara  Coeli,  200; 
San  Clemente,  195,  198;  St.  John 
Lateran,  198,  200;  San  Lorenzo 
fuori  le  Mura,  200;  San  Marco, 
Rome,  195,  198;  Santa  Maria  Mag- 
giore,  193,  201;  Santa  Maria  in 
Trastevere,  195, 196;  St.  Paul  with- 
out the  Walls  (San  Paolo  fuori  le 
Mura),  193;  St.  Peter,  193;  Santa 
Prassede,  198;  Santa  Pudenziana, 
198;  Santa  Sabina,  198 

Basilicas,  Pagan:  ^Emilia,  144;  Julia, 
163 

Bassae  (Phigalaea),  120 

Basketry,  22,  27,  28,  78 

Baths:  of  Caracalla,  161 ;  at  Pompeii, 
161,  178;  of  Titus,  161,  162 

Battle  of  Issus,  Mosaic,  182 

"Beau  Dieu"  of  Reims,  311 

Beauvais  Cathedral,  366 

Belgium,  283,  285 

Benedictines,  245,  249,  377 

Bergen,  Golden  Chalice  at,  279 

Biology  of  Styles,  11 

Bologna,  Baptistery  of  S.  Stefano, 
240 

Books  Recommended  (see  end  of 
each  chapter). 

Bosnia,  Jar  from,  28 

Bourg-en-Bresse,  Brou  Church,  311, 
338 

Bowtels,  English  Gothic,  359 

Brazil,  Central,  21 

Brou  Church,  311,  338 

Budmer  in  Bosnia,  Jar  from,  28 


Byzantine  Details:  Acanthus,  211, 
216;  Anthemions,  215,  216;  Bands 
and  Borders,  215;  Carving,  212; 
Church  Furniture,  225 ;  Floors  and 
Incrustations,  219;  Guilloches  and 
Interlace,  218;  Moldings,  215; 

Mosaic,  220;  MSS.  Illumination,  227; 
Rinceau,  217;  Shafts,  211 

Byzantine  Influences,  237,  240,  243, 
244,  249,  252,  255,  261,  264,  265, 
270,  273,  274,  275,  277,  279,  319 

Byzantine  Ornament,  206  sq.;  Archi- 
tectural 208;  Chief  Characteristics 
of,  207;  Textile,  227 


CALABRIA,  244 

Campania,  99,  108 

Campanile,  Florence,  239,  379 

Canopy  Windows,  325,  364 

Canterbury  Cathedral,  329,  362,  364 

Capitals:  Anglo-Gorman,  267;  By- 
zantine, 210,  211;  Egyptian,  50; 
Etruscan,  130;  Gothic,  283,  286, 
332;  Greek,  113;  from  Neandreia, 
66;  Persian,  68,  70;  Pompeiian, 
173;  Roman,  140-142,  144,  147; 
Romanesque,  251,  252,  273 

Carolingian  Art,  250 

Carrenac,  Portal  of  Church,  261 

Carved  Ornament:  Anglo-Norman, 
269;  Byzantine,  212;  English 
Gothic,  354;  French  Gothic,  332; 
French  Romanesque,  250;  Gothic 
in  General,  332;  Greek,  111;  Ital- 
ian Gothic,  384;  Italian  Roman- 
esque, 240,  245;  Roman,  138,  149 
sq. 

Casa  dei  Capitelli  Colorati,  172 

Casa  di  Livia,  162 

Castor  and  Pollux,  Temple  of,  141 

Cathedrals:  Alby,  312,  370;  Alten- 
burg,  329;  Amiens,  262,  311,  338, 
341,  342,  345,  366;  Bale,  311;  Can- 
terbury, 329,  362,  364;  Chartres, 
263,  307,  311,  326,  338,  341,  345, 
349;  Cologne,  329,  366,  369,  370; 


396 


INDEX 


Durham,  267;  Ely,  269;  Florence 
(Duomo)  379,  383,  384;  Freiburg, 
311,  370;  Gloucester,  363;  Lich- 
field,  311,  355;  Lincoln,  311,  357, 
361;  Lucca  (S.  Martino),  383; 
Paris  (Notre  Dame),  326,  341,  342, 
350;  Peterboro',  269,  363;  Ratis- 
bon,  370;  Reims,  263,  279,  280,  326, 
335,  338,  341,  345;  Rouen,  261,  345; 
Salisbury,  329;  Sienna,  378;  South- 
well, 289,  306;  St.  Denis,  255,  325, 
341;  Strassburg,  311,  329,  369,  370; 
Tours,  326,  345;  Troyes,  334; 
Wells,  305,  311,  356,  360;  Winches- 
ter, 357,  362;  York,  326,  329,  364 

Ceilings:  of  Basilicas,  201;  English, 
269,  361 ;  Roman,  155,  156 

Celtic:  Art,  221,  231,  271;  Crosses, 
272;  Influence,  219,  297;  Interlace, 
271,  272,  277,  278;  MSS.,  219,  232, 
271,  277 

Central  American  Art,  27 

Chaldea  and  Assyria:  Land  and  Ma- 
terials, 56;  Chronology,  55;  Early 
Art,  56 

Chalons-sur-Marne,  252 

Chapter  House,  Southwell  Cathedral, 
289,  306 

Character:  of  Anglo-Norman  O.,  266; 
of  Byzantine  O.,  207;  of  Egyptian 
O.,  36;  of  Gothic  O.,  284,  303,  331, 
353,  366,  377;  of  Greek  O.,  93;  of 
Roman  O.,  127, 132, 149;  of  Roman- 
esque O.,  238,  239,  244,  249 

Charente,  251 

Charlemagne,  Crown  of,  224,  227 

Chartres  Cathedral,  263,  307,  311, 
326,  338,  341,  345,  349 

Chevron:  in  Assyrian  O.,  59,  64;  in 
Egyptian  O.,  45 

Choir  Stalls,  311,  312,  387 

Choragic  Monument  of  Lysicrates, 
114,  121,  123,  124 

Chouamta,  Georgia,  232 

Chromatic  O.,  Denned,  5 

Church  Furniture:  Byzantine,  223; 
Early  Christian,  198;  Romanesque, 
279;*Gothic,  316 


Cistercians,  377 

Classic  Influence  and  Tradition:  in 
French  Romanesque  O.,  249,  255; 
in  Gothic  O.  generally,  303;  in 
Italian  Gothic  O.,  377,  380;  in  Tus- 
can Romanesque,  240 

Classifications  of  Ornament,  4;  their 
Significance,  7 

Cloisters,  Gloucester  Cathedral,  363 

Coere  in  Etruria,  99 

Cologne  Cathedral,  366,  373 

Color:  in  Assyrian  O.,  63;  in  Egyp- 
tian O.,  38;  in  Gothic  O.,  323,  324, 
349,  364;  in  Greek  O.,  109,  111;  in 
Italian  Architecture,  378,  384;  in 
Pompeiian  O.,  177;  in  Roman  O., 
162 

Columns:  Anglo-Norman,  266;  Cre- 
tan, 74;  Early  Christian,  139; 
Egyptian,  49,  50;  Gothic,  285; 
Greek,  112,  114;  Persian,  68; 
Roman,  136,  137,  140,  147;  Roman- 
esque, 240,  251 

Comacini,  Maestri,  245,  303 

Composite:  Capital,  142;  Order, 
140 

Compostella,  276 

Conclusion  on  Gothic  O.,  388 

Constantine:  Arch  of,  148 

Constantinople,  123,  124,  164,  196, 
210,  214,  238,  278,  279 

Conventional  Ornament:  Defined,  5; 
in  Egyptian  Art,  45;  in  Roman 
Art,  138 

Convergence  in  Ornament,  12 

Corbels:  Gothic,  301;  Norman,  267 

Corbel  Tables,  French  Romanesque, 
262 

Corinth,  99,  132 

Corinthian  Capital:  in  Gothic  O.,  379; 
Greek,  121;  Roman,  141 

Corinthian  cornice,  144 

Corinthian  Order:  Greek,  114,  121, 
144;  Roman,  122,  141,  142,  144 

Cosmati  and  Cosmati  Work,  200, 
239,  243,  383 

Crestings,  Gothic,  298 

Crete,  73 


397 


INDEX 


Cretan:  Columns,  74;  Spiral  Scroll, 

75 

Crockets,  Gothic,  297,  301,  303,  305 
Crown  of  Charlemagne,  224,  227 
Curvilinear  Tracery,  346,  360 
Cusping,  295,  342 

Cuttlefish  in  Pre-Hellenic  Art,  78,  79 
Cypress,  in  Byzantine  Art,  217 
Cypriote:   Lotus   and   Palmette,  83, 

84;  Ornament,  83 
Cyprus,  77 


D 


DALMATIA,  107,  170,  213 

"Decorated"  Style,  283,  289,  360 

Decorative  Carving:  see  Carved  Or- 
nament 

Decorative  Painting:  Anglo-Norman, 
269;  English  Gothic,  364;  French 
Gothic,  349;  French  Romanesque, 
263;  Italian  Gothic,  384;  Pom- 
peiian,  177;  Roman,  162 

Decorative  System:  of  Italian  Gothic 
Style,  377;  of  Roman  Architecture, 
133 

Definition  of  Terms  in  Ornament,  3 

Delos,  Apollo  Temple,  124 

Developed  Period  in  Gothic  O.,  293, 
295 

Didyme,  114,  115,  122,  124 

Dipylon  Pottery,  102,  103 

Doge's  Palace,  Venice,  385 

Doghanlou,  Tomb  at,  66 

Doric  Order:  Greek,  92, 112, 113,  117, 
140,  147;  Pompeiian,  172;  Roman, 
140,  147 

Doric  Style  and  Temples,  92 

Dorpfeld,  Theory  of  Doric  Order,  92 

Drip  Moldings,  English,  359 

Duomo  of  Florence,  379,  383,  384 

Durham  Cathedral,  267 


E 


EARLY  Chaldean  Art,  56 
Early  Christian:  Architectural  orna- 
ment,  192;   Ceilings,  201;   Church 


Furniture,  198;  Floors,  194;  Mo- 
saic, 196;  Ornament  in  General,  187 
sq.;  Sepulchral  Art,  188 

Early  French  Style,  283,  284,  331 

E.  B.  Tylor,  61 

Egg-and-Dart  in  Greek  Ornament, 
107,  108 

Egypt:  Influence  of  Climate,  33; 
Land  and  People,  31 ;  Materials,  34 

Egyptian  Art,  Periods,  34 

Egyptian  Ornament:  Architectural, 
38,  49,  50-52,  54;  Columns  and 
Piers,  49,  50,  51,  52;  Frets,  48; 
Furniture,  54;  General  Survey,  36, 
38;  Industrial  Arts,  52;  Jewelry, 
49;  Lotus  (see  Lotus);  Pottery, 
34,  53;  Prehistoric,  35;  Rosettes, 
46;  Sources  and  Motives,  37;  Swas- 
tika, 48;  Trilobe  Lotus,  41,  42,  60, 
78 

Elements  of  Latin  Ornament,  193 

Eleusis,  115,  122,  123 

Ely  Cathedral,  269 

England,  255,  282,  285,  286,  287,  290, 
293,  294,  305,  315,  320,  326,  360 

English  Gothic:  Carving,  354;  Dec- 
orative Painting,  364;  Drip  Mold- 
ings, 359;  Foliage,  354;  Figure 
Sculpture,  356;  General  Character, 
353;  Influence  on  French  Tracery, 
341,  346,  360;  Moldings,  356,  358; 
Tracery,  360;  Woodwork,  361 

English  Romanesque  (See  Anglo- 
Norman). 

Epidauros,  Tholos  of,  121,  122 

Erechtheion,  118, 120, 122 

Esslingen,  370 

Etruscan  Ornament,  129 


FAUSTINA,  Temple  of,  141 
Feathers,  in  Egyptian  Ornament,  45 
Ferentino,  239 

Fergusson,  on  Stained  Glass,  346 
Fetishism,  Animism,  Totemism,  21 
Figure    Sculpture:    English    Gothic, 
356;  French  Gothic,  337;   French 


398 


INDEX 


Romanesque,  262;  Gothic  in  Gen- 
eral, 307;  Roman,  156 

Fiji  Islands,  26 

Finials,  Gothic,  297 

Flamboyant  Period,  253,  283,  331, 
336,  360;  Tracery,  294,  342,  360 

Flanders,  320,  326 

Flinders  Petrie,  40  note,  44,  49  note 

Florence,  240, 379, 380,  384,  385;  Bap- 
tistery of,  243;  Campanile,  239, 
379;  Duomo,  379,  383,  384;  Or  San 
Michele,  383;  Santa  Maria  Novella, 
387 

Florid  Period  in  Gothic  O.,  284,  288, 
289,  296,  297 

"Flowing"  Tracery,  346,  360 

Foliage:  English  Gothic,  354;  French 
Gothic,  332;  Gothic  in  General,  303 

Fonts,  Anglo-Norman,  270 

France,  249,  282,  283,  284,  288,  289, 
294,  296,  303,  315,  316,  320,  326, 
360,  362,  364,  388 

Freiburg  Cathedral,  311,  370 

French  Gothic  Ornament:  Carving, 
332;  Figure  Sculpture,  337;  Foli- 
age, 332,  Moldings,  333;  Painted 
Decoration,  349;  Rose  Windows, 
294,  341,  342,  345;  Stained  Glass, 
326,  346;  Tracery,  338 

French  Influence  in  Spanish  Roman- 
esque O.,  276 

French  Romanesque  Ornament : 
Arches,  255 ;  Carving  of  Bands  and 
Panels,  250;  Classic  Influence  in, 
249,  255;  Corbel  Tables,  262;  Door- 
ways, 258;  Figure  Sculpture,  262; 
General  Character,  249;  Moldings, 
257;  Ornaments,  261;  Painted 
Decoration,  263 

Fresco,  in  Pompeiian  Art,  177 

Fret  or  Meander:  Egyptian,  48; 
Greek,  97,  98,  103 

Friendly  Islands,  25 

Frigate  Bird,  26 

Furniture:  Egyptian,  54;  Pompeiian, 
185 

Furniture,  Ecclesiastical  (see  Church 
Furniture) 


G 

GADDI,  379,  384 

Gargoyles,  Gothic,  301 

Gates:  of  Balawat,  64;  of  Ishtar  at 
Babylon,  64;  Lion  Gate  at  My- 
cenae, 77 

Gelathi,  Armenia,  232 

General  Character  of:  Byzantine  O., 
207;  Egyptian  O.,  38;  'French  Ro- 
manesque, O.,  249 ;  Greek  O.,  93 

General  Survey  of  Egyptian  O.,  36 

Geometric  or  Dipylon  Pottery,  102, 
103 

Geometric  Motives:  in  Egyptian  O., 
45;  in  Greek  O.,  96,  97 

Geometric  Tracery,  360 

Georgian  Byzantine  Carving,  232 

German:  Branch  Tracery,  370; 
Gothic  Moldings,  366;  Gothic  Or- 
nament, General,  366;  Minor  Arts, 
375;  Moldings,  370;  MSS.,  375;  Ro- 
manesque O.,  273;  Spires,  285; 
Stained  Glass,  275,  372;  Tracery, 
369 

Germany,  237,  256,  273,  279,  283,  285, 
295,  297,  306,  315,  316,  320,  326, 
329,  388 

Gernrode,  274 

Giotto,  239,  379,  384 

Gloucester  Cathedral:  Candlestick, 
271 ;  Cloisters,  363 

Golden  House  of  Nero,  161,  162 

Goodyear,  W.  H.,  41,  43  note,  44,  49 
note,  51  note,  59  note,  107  note 

Gothic:  Architecture  Defined,  282; 
Architectural  Periods,  283;  Balus- 
trades, 296;  Bases,  286,  287;  Capi- 
tals, 283,  286,  332;  Carving,  303, 
332;  Crestings,  298;  Crockets,  297, 
301,  303;  Cusping,  295,  342;  Dec- 
orative Painting,  349,  369,  384; 
Figure  Sculpture,  307,  337,  356; 
Finials,  297;  Foliage,  303,  332; 
Gargoyles,  301;  Minor  Architec- 
ture, 311;  Metal  Work,  316;  Mold- 
ings, 288;  MSS.  Decoration,  320; 
Piers,  Shafts  and  Columns,  285; 
Pinnacles,  297;  Stained  Glass,  324, 


399 


INDEX 


564;  Structural  Ornament,  324; 
Tabernacles,  298;  Textiles,  319; 
Tiles,  319;  Tracery,  293,  282,  283, 
293,  338-346,  360-361,  374,  380; 
Vaulting,  289,  361,  374;  Wood- 
work, 812,  357,  373 

Gothic  Schools  and  Styles  (see  under 
separate  titles) 

Greco-Roman  Art,  93,  124 

Greek:  Acanthus,  98,  120;  Anthe- 
mion,  104,  118,  119;  Architectural 
Ceramics,  109;  Architectural  Dec- 
oration, 110;  Art  Periods,  91; 
Carved  Details,  116;  Conquest  by 
Rome,  124,  132;  Corinthian  Order, 
114,  121,  144;  Doric  Order,  112, 
113,  117,  140,  147;  Doric  Style,  92; 
Geometric  Motives,  96;  Griffins, 
Grotesques,  124;  Guilloche,  98, 
107;  Ionic  Order,  113,  117,  140; 
Moldings,  109,  111,  115;  Nature 
Forms,  96,  97;  Ornament,  General 
Characteristics  of,  93;  Ornament, 
Introductory,  88;  Ornament,  Mo- 
tives of,  96,  97;  Ornament,  Related 
to  Roman,  124;  Painted  Details, 
Polychromy,  115;  People,  88;  Pot- 
tery, Changes  in  style  of,  100;  Pot- 
tery, Decoration  of,  99-109;  Pot- 
tery, Geometric  or  Dipylon,  102, 
103;  Pottery,  Types  and  Forms  of, 
102;  Rinceau,  98,  108,  122;  Stele 
Heads,  119;  Style  History,  112 

Greek  Wave  or  Spiral  Scroll:  in 
Egyptian  O.,  46;  in  Greek  O.,  104 

Griffins:  Assyrian,  63;  Greek,  124 

Grimani  Breviary,  323 

Grisaille,  325 

Grotesques:  Anglo-Norman,  268; 
French  Gothic,  338;  Greek,  124; 
Pompeiian,  185;  Roman,  157;  Ro- 
manesque, 245 

Guilloche:  Assyrian,  59;  Byzantine, 
218;  Early  Christian,  199;  Greek, 
98,  107 

H 


HADDOX,  A.  C.,  26 


Hagia  Sophia,  209,  210,  212,  220,  221, 
222,  225 

Hagia  Triada,  Crete,  73,  74 

Hammer  Beam  Ceilings,  363 

Hathor  Head  in  Egyptian  O.,  44,  50 

Hawaiian  Islands,  26 

Heilsbronn,  274,  279 

Henry  VII's  Chapel,  Westminster, 
363 

Herculanum,  183 

Hildesheim:  Candlestick,  279;  Trea- 
sure, 167 

Historic  Styles,  Survey,  10 

History,  meaning  of,  8 

Holmes,  W.  H.,  28 

House:  of  the  Faun,  Pompeii,  182, 
183;  Golden,  of  Nero,  161,  162;  of 
Livia,  Rome,  171;  of  the  Painted 
Capitals,  Pompeii,  173;  of  Queen 
Margherita,  of  the  Vettii,  Pompeii, 
174 


IALYSSOS,  Rhodes,  79,  86 

Iffley  Church,  269 

Ile-de-France,  251,  252 

Imbrications:  Assyrian,  59;  Egyp- 
tian, 45;  French  Romanesque,  261; 
Greek,  107 

Impost  Blocks,  Byzantine,  209 

Indians:  American,  28;  of  Central 
Brazil,  21 

Industrial  Ornament:  Defined,  7; 
Egyptian,  52 

Intarsia,  387 

Interlace:  Byzantine,  221,  272;  Celtic, 
221,  271,  272,  377,  278;  Scandina- 
vian, 277 

Introduction  to  Greek  Ornament,  88 

Ionic  Order:  Greek,  113,  140;  Pom- 
peiian, 171,  172;  Roman,  140 

Irish  Art,  271,  274,  278;  also  see 
Celtic 

Islands:  Fiji,  26;  Friendly,  26; 
Hawaiian,  26;  South  Sea,  25; 
Samoan,  26 

Italian  Gothic:  Architectural  De- 
tails, 380;  Decorative  Painting, 


400 


INDEX 


384;  The  System,  377;  Tracery, 
380,  385;  Wood  and  Metal,  387  : 

Italian  Romanesque:  Carving,  240; 
Cosmati  Work  in,  239;  General, 
238;  Grotesques,  245;  Inlay  and 
Striping,  240;  Lombard  Style,  244; 
MSS.,  249;  Siculo-Arabic  Style, 
243;  Wheel  Windows,  249 

Italy,  234,  245,  303,  316,  319,  320, 
326,  329,  388 

Ivory  Carving,  Byzantine,  224 

Ivory  Throne  of  Maximian,  224 


"JACHIN  and  Boaz,"  82 
Java,  War  Drum  Head,  26 
Jean  Fouquet,  323 
Jerusalem,  82,  85 
"Jesse  Tree"  Windows,  325 

K 

KAHRIE   Mosque   (Mone  tes  Choras 

Church),  222 
Kameiros,  Rhodes,  86 
Karnak,  Hypostyle  Hall,  43 
Kelat  Seman,  Syria,  232 
Knossos,  Crete,  73,  74,  75 


LABEL  or  Drip  Moldings,  English,  359 

Lancet  Style,  283 

Leading  Characteristics  of  Byzan- 
tine Ornament,  207 

Lichfield  Cathedral,  301,  311 

Liernes,  290,  362 

Limoges  Enamels,  224,  264 

Lincoln  Cathedral:  Angel  Choir,  311, 
357;  Circular  Windows,  361 

Lion  Gate,  Mycenae,  77 

Living  Forms  in  Assyrian  Ornament, 
63 

Loggie  of  Vatican,  162 

Lombard  Doorways,  258 

Lombard  Style,  238;  Influence  of, 
218,  258 


Lombards,  The,  244 

Lombardy,  246 

Lotiform  Motive,  Greek,  106 

Lotus:  Assyrian,  58,  59;  Egyptian. 

40-42,  58,  60,  69,  83,  84,  98,  104; 

Trilobe  Lotus,  41,  42,  60,  78 
Louviers,  Church  of  St.  Pierre,  345 
Lucca,  239;  San  Guisto  at,  240;  San 

Martino  at,  383 
Lycian  Architecture,  69 
Lydia,  65 
Lysicrates,  Choragic  Monument  of, 

114,  121,  123,  124 


M 


MAESTRI  Comacini,  245,  303 

Maison  Carree,  Nimes,  144 

Mandorla  Door,  Florence  Cathedral, 
384 

Mangaian  Ornament,  21 

Manuscript  Illumination,  219,  227, 
232,  277,  320 

Martorana,  La,  at  Palermo,  243 

Maximian,  Ivory  Throne  of,  224 

Meaning  of  History  of  Ornament,  8 

Meaux,  Cathedral,  342 

Medallion  Windows,  325 

Melos,  Melian  Pottery  and  O.,  74,  86, 
99 

Metal  Work,  Gothic,  316 

Method  of  this  History,  15 

Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  N.  Y., 
vii,  85,  131,  178  note 

Mexican  Pottery,  27 

Milan  Cathedral,  279,  383 

Miletus,  114,  122,  123 

Minor  Architecture,  Gothic,  311 

Minor  Arts,  German,  373 

Modillion,  The  Roman,  144 

Moissac,  252 

Mokheta,  Georgia,  232 

Molaise  Gospels,  272 

Molding  Ornaments,  Gothic,  289,  358 

Moldings:  Anglo-Norman,  267;  By- 
zantine, 215;  Drip  or  Label,  359; 
Egyptian  Torus,  49,  50;  English 
Gothic,  358;  French  Gothic,  288, 


401 


INDEX 


333;  French  Romanesque,  257; 
German  Gothic,  306;  Greek,  109, 
111,  115;  Roman,  139,  153 

Molfetta,  388 

Monasterboice,  Ireland,  272 

Mone  tes  Choras  (Kahrie'  Mosque), 
222 

Monreale,  200,  201,  239,  243,  244 

Monument  of  Lysicrates,  114,  121, 
123,  124 

Mosaic:  Byzantine,  220;  Chaldean  at 
Warka,  57;  Early  Christian,  196; 
Italian  Gothic,  380;  Pompeiian, 
181;  Roman,  162 

Motives  in  Ornament:  Assyrian,  57- 
59;  Denned,  3;  Egyptian,  37,  45; 
Greek,  96-98 

Mudejar  Style,  374 

Mural  Painting:  Italian,  384;  Pom- 
peiian, 173;  Roman,  162 

Museums:  American  of  Natural  His- 
tory, 28  note;  of  Capitol,  Rome, 
167;  Metropolitan  at  New  York, 
vii,  85,  131,  178  note;  of  Naples, 
164, 167,  174,  182,  183;  of  Toulouse, 
252;  of  Trocade>o,  Paris,  264,  342; 
of  Vatican,  167,  186 

Mycenae,  74,  77,  92 

Mycenaean:  Buttons,  79;  Ornament, 
77;  Spirals,  82 

Myth-making  Faculty  in  Savages,  25 


N 


NAPLES,  Museum  of,  164,  167,  174, 
182,  185 

Nature  Forms:  in  Egyptian  O.,  40; 
in  Greek  O.,  96,  97;  in  Myce- 
naean O.,  79 

Neandreia,  Capital  from,  66 

New  Guinea,  Art  of,  25,  27 

New  Zealand:  Art  of,  24,  25;  Maori 
Flute  from,  26;  Tiki-Tiki  Pattern, 
26  (see  also  Mangaian) 

Nippur  (Niffer),  57 

Nithhoggr,  272 

Norman  (see  Anglo-Norman) 

Normandy,  251,  257 


Notre  Dame  Cathedral,  Paris,  326, 

341,342 

Notre  Dame  Church,  Poitiers,  257 
Nuremberg,  Churches  at,  369,  370 


OPPEKHEIM,  St.  Catherine's  at,  369 

Opus  Alexandrinum,  158,  193,  199, 
239;  Grecanicum,  181,  196;  Sectile, 
193,  199 

Orcagna,  385 

Orchomenos,  79 

Orders  of  Architecture:  Composite, 
140;  Corinthian,  114,  121,  122,  14], 
142,  144;  Doric,  92,  112,  113,  117, 
140,  147,  172;  Ionic,  113,  140,  171, 
172;  Tuscan,  140 

Origins  of  Ornament,  30 

Ormidia,  Vase  from,  86 

Ornament:  Classifications  of,  4;  De- 
fined, 3;  Origins  of,  20  (and  see 
Table  of  Contents) 

Orvieto,  378 


PAINTED  Decoration  (see  Decorative 
Painting) 

Painting,  Mural  (see  Mural  Paint- 
ing) 

Pala  d'Oro,  223,  279 

Palace  of  Diocletian,  Spalato,  208 

Palatine  Chapel,  Aachen,  369 

Palazzo  Pubblico,  Sienna,  387 

Palermo,.  243 

Palestine,  213 

Palm  Tree  in  Assyrian  O.,  61 

Pahnette:  Assyrian,  61;  Cypriote, 
83;  Egyptian,  48;  Greek,  104;  Per- 
sian, 69;  Phenician,  82,  83 

Pantheon  at  Rome,  140,  155,  158,  163 

Papuan  Art,  21,  25,  27 

Papyrus  in  Egyptian  O.,  43,  51,  52 

Parenzo,  216 

Paris,  326,  331,  341,  342,  350 

Parthenon,  115,  119,  124 

Pasargadae,  67 


402 


INDEX 


Pattern  Defined,  3 

Pavements,  Decorative  (Floors):  in 
Baptistery,  Florence,  243;  Byzan- 
tine, 208;  Pompeiian,  181;  Roman, 
162;  Romanesque,  265 

Periods:  in  Egyptian  Art,  34;  in 
Gothic  Styles,  283,  331;  in  Greek 
Art,  91;  in  Pompeiian  Art,  174 

Perpendicular  Style,  244,  283,  289, 
296,  306,  346,  360,  361 

Persian:  Architectural  O.,  67;  Col- 
umns, 68;  Ornament  Motives,  69; 
Stepped  Parapet,  70 

Persistence  of  Motives,  11 

Peruvian  Art,  27 

Peterboro'  Cathedral,  269,  363 

Phaistos,  Crete,  73,  74 

Phenician  Ornament,  79,  82,  83 

Phigalaea  (Bassae)  Apollo  Temple, 
120 

Phrygia,  65,  68 

Piers:  Egyptian,  49,  51,  52;  Gothic, 
285 

Pine  Cone  in  Assyrian  Ornament,  59 

Pinnacles  in  Gothic  Architecture,  297 

Pisa,  238,  239,  240,  257;  Baptistery, 
240 

Pistoia,  239 

Plant  Forms:  in  Egyptian  Ornament, 
43;  in  Mycenaean  O.,  79;  in  Gothic 
O.  (see  Foliage) 

Plastic  Ornament  Defined,  5 

Plate  Tracery,  293,  360 

Poitiers,  Notre  Dame  at,  257;  Ste. 
Rad£gonde,  264 

Polychromy:  Greek,  109,  111;  Italian, 
378,  379,  384 

Polynesian  Ornament,  25 

Pomegranate  in  Assyrian  O.,  59 

Pompeii,  125,  130,  162,  163,  164 

Pompeiian:  Architectural  Detail, 
172;  Decorative  Art,  170;  Furni- 
ture and  Utensils,  183;  Mosaic, 
181;  Mural  Decoration,  173; 
Periods  in  Mural  Decoration,  174; 
Stucco  Relief,  178 

Pomposa,  Santa  Maria,  220 

"Portal  Guardians,"  Assyrian,  62 


Portugal,  283 

Pottery:  American,  27,  28;  Apulian, 

99,    100,    106,    244;    Bolivian,    28; 

Cretan,    75;     Egyptian,    34,    53; 

Greek,    99;    Melian,    74,    86,    99; 

Mexican,  27;  Peruvian,  Pueblo,  27, 

28;  South  American,  28;  Zuni,  27 
Pottery  Decoration,  Greek,  99-109 
"Powdered"  Ornament  Defined,  5 
Prehistoric  and  Primitive  Ornament, 

12 

Prehistoric  Egyptian  Ornament,  35 
Priene,  122 

Primitive  American  Ornament,  27 
Provence,  249,  251,  252,  255,  262 
Pueblo  Pottery,  27 

Q 

QUAERY  Defined,  5 


R 


RATISBON  (Regensburg)  Cathedral, 
370 

Ravenna,  206,  210,  211,  220,  223,  224, 
238 

Rayonnant  Style,  283,  331,  332,  341, 
342 

Reims  Cathedral,  262,  278,  279,  280, 
326,  335,  338,  341 

Rhine  Provinces,  273 

Rhodes,  77,  86,  99 

Rinceau:  Byzantine,  217;  French 
Romanesque,  255,  256;  French 
Gothic,  337;  Greek,  98,  108,  123; 
Pompeiian,  177;  Roman,  153-155 

Roman:  Acanthus,  152;  Anthemion, 
155,  156;  Architectural  Features, 
136;  Carved  O.,  138,  149  sq.;  Ceil- 
ing Decoration,  155;  156;  Con- 
quests of  Greece,  93,  124,  132; 
Conventional  O.,  138;  Decorative 
System,  133;  Figure  Sculpture, 
156;  Floor-Pavements,  162;  Fur- 
niture and  Utensils,  164;  Gro- 
tesques, 157;  Moldings,  139,  153; 
Mural  Painting,  162;  Orders  of 


403 


INDEX 


Architecture,  140,  144,  147;  Ilin- 
ceau,  153-155;  Stucco  Relief,  158, 
178;  Wall  Decoration,  158,  162 

Roman  Genius,  The,  127 

Romanesque,  English  (see  Anglo- 
Norman) 

Romanesque,  French  (see  French 
Romanesque) 

Romanesque,  German  (see  German 
Romanesque) 

Romanesque  Metal  Work,  279 

Romanesque  Ornament:  Italian  in 
General,  238;  Lombard,  244;  Tus- 
can, 239;  Scandinavian,  277;  Span- 
ish, 276 

Romanesque  Period,  The,  234 

Rose  Windows:  English,  361; 
French  Gothic,  341,  342,  345,  361 

Rosettes:  Assyrian,  61;  Cretan,  80; 
Egyptian,  46;  Gothic  (Vaulting 
Bosses),  290;  Greek,  98;  Myce- 
naean, 78;  Persian,  69;  Roman, 
142,  143,  153 

Rosheim,  Alsace,  274 

Rouen:  Cathedral,  261,  345;  St. 
Maclou,  St.  Ouen,  345 

Rouheiha,  Syria,  231,  232 

Russian  Byzantine  Ornament,  232 


S 


SACRED  Tree,  Assyrian,  36,  60,  84 

Sakkarah,  Tombs  at,  46 

Sainte  Chapelle,  Paris,  326,  341,  345, 
350 

Salamanca,  276 

Salisbury  Cathedral,  329 

Salonica,  210 

Samoan  Islands,  26 

San  Andrea,  Vercelli,  384 

San  Apollinare  Churches  at  Ra- 
venna, 198,  220,  223,  225 

San  Francesco,  Assisi,  384 

San  Lorenzo  fuori,  Rome,  200 

San  Marco,  Rome,  195,  198 

San  Martino,  Lucca,  383 

San  Paolo  (see  St.  Paul) 

San  Miniato,  201,  240,  243 


San  Stefano,  Bologna,  240 
San  Vitale,  Ravenna^  211,  220 
Sant'  Anastasia,  Verona,  384 
Santa  Costanza,  Rome,  202 
Santa   Maria   in   Ara   Coeli,   Rome, 
200 

"          "        Maggiore,   Rome,   193, 
201 

"          "        Novella,  Florence,  387 
"        Pomposa,  220 

"          "        in    Trastevere,    Rome, 

195,  196 

Santa  Prassede,  Rome,  198 
Santa  Sabina,  Rome,  195 
Sardis,  66 
Savage     Ornament,     Characteristics 

of,  25,  29 
Saxony,  273 
Scaligers,  Tombs  of  the,  382  (ill'n) ; 

383,  388 

Scandinavian  Ornament,  277 
Scarabaeus    in    Egyptian   Ornament, 

44,  54 

Sicily,  238,  239,  243,  319 
Siculo-Arabic  Style,  238,  239,  243 
Sidon  Sarcophagi,  123,  124 
Sienna,  238,  384,  387;  Cathedral,  378 
Significance  of  Classifications,  7 
Six  Propositions  on  History  of  O., 

13 

Solomon's  Temple,  82 
Sources  and  Motives  of  Egyptian  O., 

37 

South  Sea  Islands,  25 
Southwark,  St.  Saviour's,  357 
Southwell  Chapter  House,  289,  306 
Spain,  283,  293,  311,  319,  320,  329, 

398 
Spalato  in  Dalmatia,  137,  207,  208, 

209,  213 
Spanish:    Chapel    of    Santa    Maria 

Novella,     Florence,    387;     Gothic 

Ornament,       373 ;        Romanesque 

Style,  276 

Sphinx  in  Egyptian  Art,  45 
Spirals:    JEgean    and    Pre-Hellenic, 

78,  82;   Egyptian,  46;  Greek,  98; 

in  Savage  Ornament,  28,  30 


404 


INDEX 


St.  Ceneri,  264 

St.  Denis,  255,  325,  341 

St.  Gilles,  near  Aries,  255,  307 

St.  John  Lateran,  Rome,  198,  200 

St.  Maclou,  Rouen,  345 

St.    Mark's,   Venice,    195,   207,   212, 

223,  224,  279 
St.  Omer,  Cathedral,  265 
SI.  Ouen,  Rouen,  345 
St.    Paul    without    the    Walls    (San 

Paolo  fuori  le  Mura),  Rome,  198, 

200 

St.  Paul-Trois-Chateaux,  250 
St.  Pierre,  Louviers,  345 
St.  Saviour's,  Southwark,  357 
St.  Trophime,  Aries,  262 
St.  Urbain,  Troyes,  336,  342 
Stained    Glass,    320,    324;    English, 

366;  French,  346;  German,  370 
Ste.  Radegonde,  Poitiers,  264 
Stepped     Parapet:     Assyrian,     59; 

Persian,  70 
Strassburg,  Cathedral,  311,  329,  369, 

370 
Structural    Ornament:    Denned,    7; 

Gothic,  283 
Stucco      Relief:     Pompeiian,     178; 

Roman,  158,  178 
Styles:   "Biology"   of,  11;   Historic, 

10;  Summary  of  Sequence  of,  15; 

Value  of  Study  of,  14 
Summary:     of     Characteristics     of 

Savage  Ornament,  29;  of  Sequence 

of  Styles,  15 
Sun    Disk   on   Egyptian    Buildings, 

44 

Susa,  64,  67,  68 
Swastika:    in    Cypriote    Ornament, 

84,  85,  86;  in  Egyptian  O.,  48;  in 

Greek     O.,     98;     in     Pompeiian 

Mosaics,  181;  in  Roman  O.,  164 
Syria,  206,  210,  213,  229 
Syrian  Christian  Ornament,  229 
System:    of    Italian    Gothic    Orna- 
ment, 377;  Roman  Decorative,  133 


TALENTI,  Architect  of  Campanile,  379 


Tarragona,  276 

Technic  Theory  of  Origins  of  Orna- 
ment, 22 

Tegernsee,  Earliest  Stained  Glass, 
324  note 

Temples:  of  Apollo  at  Didyme,  114, 
115,  122,  124;  of  Apollo  at  Phi- 
galaea  (Bassae),  120;  of  Castor  and 
Pollux,  Rome,  140;  of  Egypt,  43, 
51;  of  Erechtheion,  Athens,  118, 
120,  122;  of  Faustina,  Rome, 
140;  of  Parthenon,  Athens,  115, 
119,  124;  of  Zeus,  Athens,  121 

Textile  Ornament:  Byzantine,  227; 
Gothic,  319 

Theories  of  Origins  of  Ornament, 
20,  22 

Tholos:  of  Atreus,  Mycenae,  77;  of 
Epidauros,  121,  122 

Throne  of  Maximian,  224 

Tiercerons,  290,  361 

Tiles:  Chaldean  and  Assyrian,  57, 
63;  Romanesque,  265;  Gothic,  319 

Tiryns,  74,  75,  77,  78,  92 

Titus:  Arch  of,  136,  156;  Baths  of, 
161 

Tombs;  of  Abbot  of  Aubazine  (ill.), 
309;  at  Doghanlou,  66;  of  Galla 
Placidia,  Ravenna,  223;  "of 
Midas,"  65,  66,  68;  Persian,  67; 
at  Sakkarah,  46;  of  Scaligers, 
Verona,  383,  388;  on  Via  Latina, 
161 

Toscanella,  Churches  at,, 249 

Totemism,  21 

Totem  Poles,  Alaskan,  22 

Totems,  New  Zealand  Female,  24 

Toulouse,    Capitals   in    Museum    of, 

252 

Tourmanin,  Syria,  231,  232 
Tours  Cathedral,  326,  345 
Tracery,   Gothic   Window:   English, 
360;    French,   338;    German,   369; 
Italian,  380,  383;  Spanish,  374 
Trilobe  Lotus,  41,  42,  60,  78 
Triptych  in  Amiens  Library,  338 
Trocade>o  Museum,  Paris,  264,  342 
Troja,  243,  249 


405 


INDEX 


Troy,  74,  75,  77 

Troyes:  Cathedral,  334;  St.  Urbain 

at,  334,  342 
Tudor  Rose,  306 
Tuscan  Order,  140 
Tuscan  Romanesque  Style,  239 


ULM,  Minster  at,  370 
Uraeus  (Adder)  in  Egyptian  Orna- 
ment, 44 


VALUE  of  Study  of  Styles,  14 
Variety  in  Roman  Orders,  144 
Vatican  Museum,  167,  186 
Vaulting:  English  Gothic,  285,  361; 

German,  293;  Gothic  in  General, 

289 

Vaults  and  Ceilings,  English,  361 
Venice,  207,  210,  219,  223,  380,  383; 

Doge's  Palace  at,  383;  St.  Mark's 

at,   195,   207,   223,   231,   238,   282; 

Tracery,  380,  383 
Vercelli,  San  Andrea  at,  384 
Verona,  244,  391,  392 
Vignola's  Rules  for  the  Orders,  144 
Vine  in   Byzantine  Ornament,   106; 

in  Greek  O.,  106 
Viollet-le-Duc,  303;  His  Restoration 

of  Chapels  in  Notre  Dame,  350 
Vitruvius,  144 


W 

WALL    Decoration:    Byzantine,   219; 

Pompeiian,  173;  Roman,  158,  162 
Wall  and  Gable  Tracery,  295 
Wall  Mosaic  at  Warka,  57 
Ware,  W.  R.,  211  note 
Warka  (Erech),  57 
Wells  Cathedral,  305,  311,  356,  360 
Westminster:     Abbey,     361;     Hall. 

364;  Henry  VII's  Chapel,  363 
Wheel      Windows:      French,      294; 

Italian,  249 
Winchester:  Cathedral,  357,  362;  St. 

Cross  at,  269 
Window     Tracery      (see     Tracery, 

Gothic  Window) 
Wood  Carvings,  Gothic,  312 
Wood  and  Metal  in   Italian  Gothic 

Art,  387 
Woodwork,  English,  357,  363 


YGODRASIL,  272 

York  Cathedral,  326,  329,  364 


ZAMOHRA,  276 

Zigzags:  Anglo-Norman,  267;  Egyp- 
tian, 45;  French,  261;  German, 
274;  Savage,  24,  30 

Zufii  Pottery,  27 


406 


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